Method for treatment of diseases

ABSTRACT

The invention provides a method of inhibiting vascular hyperpermeability in an animal in need thereof. The method comprises administering a vascular-hyperpermeability-inhibiting amount of a danazol compound to the animal. The invention also provides a method of modulating the cytoskeleton of an endothelial cell in an animal. The method comprises administering an effective amount of a danazol compound to the animal.

This application claims benefit of provisional application 61/219,185,filed Jun. 22, 2009, and provisional application 61/315,350, filed Mar.18, 2010, the complete disclosures of both of which are incorporatedherein by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to a method of inhibiting vascularhyperpermeability and the edema and other adverse effects that resultfrom it. The invention also relates to a method of modulating thecytoskeleton of endothelial cells. Both methods comprise administering adanazol compound to an animal.

BACKGROUND

The vascular endothelium lines the inside of all blood vessels. It actsas the interface between the blood and the tissues and organs. Theendothelium forms a semi-permeable barrier that maintains the integrityof the blood fluid compartment, but permits passage of water, ions,small molecules, macromolecules and cells in a regulated manner.Dysregulation of this process produces vascular leakage into underlyingtissues. Leakage of fluid into tissues causing edema can have seriousand life threatening consequences in a variety of diseases. Accordingly,it would be highly desirable to have a method for reducing edema,preferably at its earliest stage, and restoring the endothelial barrierto physiological.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides such a method. In particular, the inventionprovides a method of inhibiting vascular hyperpermeability and the edemaand other adverse effects that result from it. The method comprisesadministering a vascular-hyperpermeability-inhibiting amount of adanazol compound to an animal in need thereof. Inhibition of vascularhyperpermeability according to the invention includes inhibition ofparacellular-caused hyperpermeability and transcytosis-causedhyperpermeability. Recent evidence indicates that transcytosis-causedhyperpermeability is the first step of a process that ultimately leadsto tissue and organ damage in many diseases and conditions. Accordingly,the present invention provides a means of early intervention in thesediseases and conditions which can reduce, delay or even potentiallyprevent the tissue and organ damage seen in them.

The invention also provides a method of modulating the cytoskeleton ofendothelial cells in an animal. The method comprises administering aneffective amount of a danazol compound to the animal.

“Vascular hyperpermeability” is used herein to mean permeability of avascular endothelium that is increased as compared to basal levels.“Vascular hyperpermeability,” as used herein, includesparacellular-caused hyperpermeability and transcytosis-causedhyperpermeability.

“Paracellular-caused hyperpermeability” is used herein to mean vascularhyperpermeability caused by paracellular transport that is increased ascompared to basal levels. Other features of “paracellular-causedhyperpermeability” are described below.

“Paracellular transport” is used herein to mean the movement of ions,molecules and fluids through the interendothelial junctions (IEJs)between the endothelial cells of an endothelium.

“Transcytosis-caused hyperpermeability” is used herein to mean vascularhyperpermeability caused by transcytosis that is increased as comparedto basal levels.

“Transcytosis” is used herein to mean the active transport ofmacromolecules and accompanying fluid-phase plasma constituents acrossthe endothelial cells of the endothelium. Other features of“transcytosis” are described below.

“Basal level” is used herein to refer to the level found in a normaltissue or organ.

“Inhibiting, “inhibit” and similar terms are used herein to mean toreduce, delay or prevent.

An animal is “in need of” treatment according to the invention if theanimal presently has a disease or condition mediated by vascularhyperpermeability, exhibits early signs of such a disease or condition,or has a predisposition to develop such a disease or condition.

“Mediated” and similar terms are used here to mean caused by, causing,involving or exacerbated by, vascular hyperpermeability.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows the OD levels measured after incubation of HUVEC cells withdanazol as a measure of its ability to prevent initial proliferation ofendothelial cells.

FIG. 2 shows photographs of HUVEC cells taken after incubation withdanazol as a measure of its ability to prevent tube formation ofendothelial cells. A=control; B=1 μM danazol, C=10 μM danazol, D=50 μMdanazol and E=50 μM LY294002.

FIG. 3 shows the fluorescence measured after treatment of HUVEC cellswith danazol as a measure of their ability to prevent endothelial cellinvasion.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESENTLY-PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS OF THEINVENTION

The endothelium is a key gatekeeper controlling the exchange ofmolecules from the blood to the tissue parenchyma. It largely controlsthe permeability of a particular vascular bed to blood-borne molecules.The permeability and selectivity of the endothelial cell barrier isstrongly dependent on the structure and type of endothelium lining themicrovasculature in different vascular beds. Endothelial cells liningthe microvascular beds of different organs exhibit structuraldifferentiation that can be grouped into three primary morphologiccategories: sinusoidal, fenestrated and continuous.

Sinusoidal endothelium (also referred to as “discontinuous endothelium”)has large intercellular and intracellular gaps and no basement membrane,allowing for minimally restricted transport of molecules from thecapillary lumen into the tissue and vice versa. Sinusoidal endotheliumis found in liver, spleen and bone marrow.

Fenestrated endothelia are characterized by the presence of a largenumber of circular transcellular openings called fenestrae with adiameter of 60 to 80 nm. Fenestrated endothelia are found in tissues andorgans that require rapid exchange of small molecules, including kidney(glomeruli, peritubular capillaries and ascending vasa recta), pancreas,adrenal glands, endocrine glands and intestine. The fenestrae arecovered by thin diaphragms, except for those in mature, healthyglomeruli. See Ichimura et al., J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 19:1463-1471(2008).

Continuous endothelia do not contain fenestrae or large gaps. Instead,continuous endothelia are characterized by an uninterrupted endothelialcell monolayer. Most endothelia in the body are continuous endothelia,and continuous endothelium is found in, or around, the brain (bloodbrain barrier), diaphragm, duodenal musculature, fat, heart, some areasof the kidneys (papillary microvasculature, descending vasa recta),large blood vessels, lungs, mesentery, nerves, retina (blood retinalbarrier), skeletal muscle, testis and other tissues and organs of thebody.

Endothelial transport in continuous endothelium can be thought of in ageneral sense as occurring by paracellular and transcellular pathways.The paracellular pathway is the pathway between endothelial cells,through the interendothelial junctions (IEJs). In unperturbed continuousendothelium, water, ions and small molecules are transportedparacellularly by diffusion and convection. A significant amount ofwater (up to 40%) also crosses the endothelial cell barriertranscellularly through water-transporting membrane channels calledaquaporins. A variety of stimuli can disrupt the organization of theIEJs, thereby opening gaps in the endothelial barrier. The formation ofthese intercellular gaps allows passage of fluid, ions, macromolecules(e.g., proteins) and other plasma constituents between the endothelialcells in an unrestricted manner. This paracellular-causedhyperpermeability produces edema and other adverse effects that caneventually result in damage to tissues and organs.

The transcellular pathway is responsible for the active transport ofmacromolecules, such as albumin and other plasma proteins, across theendothelial cells, a process referred to as “transcytosis.” Thetransport of macromolecules occurs in vesicles called caveolae. Almostall continuous endothelia have abundant caveolae, except for continuousendothelia located in brain and testes which have few caveolae.Transcytosis is a multi-step process that involves successive caveolaebudding and fission from the plasmalemma and translocation across thecell, followed by docking and fusion with the opposite plasmalemma,where the caveolae release their contents by exocytosis into theinterstitium. Transcytosis is selective and tightly regulated undernormal physiological conditions.

There is a growing realization of the fundamental importance of thetranscellular pathway. Transcytosis of plasma proteins, especiallyalbumin which represents 65% of plasma protein, is of particularinterest because of its ability to regulate the transvascular oncoticpressure gradient. As can be appreciated, then, increased transcytosisof albumin and other plasma proteins above basal levels will increasethe tissue protein concentration of them which, in turn, will causewater to move across the endothelial barrier, thereby producing edema.

Low density lipoproteins (LDL) are also transported across endothelialcells by transcytosis. In hyperlipidemia, a significant increase intranscytosis of LDL has been detected as the initial event inatherogenesis. The LDL accumulates in the subendothelial space, trappedwithin the expanded basal lamina and extracellular matrix. Thesubendothelial lipoprotein accumulation in hyperlipidema is followed bya cascade of events resulting in atheromatous plaque formation. Advancedatherosclerotic lesions are reported to be occasionally accompanied bythe opening of IEJs and massive uncontrolled passage of LDL and albumin.

Vascular complications are a hallmark of diabetes. At the level of largevessels, the disease appears to be expressed as an acceleration of anatherosclerotic process. With respect to microangiopathy, alterations inthe microvasculature of the retina, renal glomerulus and nerves causethe greatest number of clinical complications, but a continuouslyincreasing number of investigations show that diabetes also affects themicrovasculature of other organs, such as the mesentery, skin, skeletalmuscle, heart, brain and lung, causing additional clinicalcomplications. In all of these vascular beds, changes in vascularpermeability appear to represent a hallmark of the diabetic endothelialdysfunction.

In continuous endothelium, capillary hyperpermeability to plasmamacromolecules in the early phase of diabetes is explained by anintensification of transendothelial vesicular transport (i.e., byincreased transcytosis) and not by the destabilization of the IEJs. Inaddition, the endothelial cells of diabetics, including those of thebrain, have been reported to contain an increased number of caveolae ascompared to normals, and glycated proteins, particularly glycatedalbumin, are taken up by endothelial cells and transcytosed atsubstantially greater rates than their native forms. Further, increasedtranscytosis of macromolecules is a process that continues beyond theearly phase of diabetes and appears to be a cause of edema in diabetictissues and organs throughout the disease if left untreated. This edema,in turn, leads to tissue and organ damage. Similar increases intranscellular transport of macromolecules have been reported inhypertension.

Paracellular-caused hyperpermeability is also a factor in diabetes andthe vascular complications of diabetes. The IEJs of the paracellularpathway include the adherens junctions (AJs) and tight junctions (TJs).Diabetes alters the content, phosphorylation and localization of certainproteins in both the AJs and TJs, thereby contributing to increasedendothelial barrier permeability.

In support of the foregoing discussion and for further information, seeFrank et al., Cell Tissue Res., 335:41-47 (2009), Simionescu et al.,Cell Tissue Res., 335:27-40 (2009); van den Berg et al., J. Cyst.Fibros., 7(6): 515-519 (2008); Viazzi et al., Hypertens. Res.,31:873-879 (2008); Antonetti et al., Chapter 14, pages 340-342, inDiabetic Retinopathy (edited by Elia J. Duh, Humana Press, 2008),Felinski et al., Current Eye Research, 30:949-957 (2005), Pascariu etal., Journal of Histochemistry & Cytochemistry, 52(1):65-76 (2004);Bouchard et al., Diabetologia, 45:1017-1025 (2002); Arshi et al.,Laboratory Investigation, 80(8):1171-1184 (2000); Vinores et al.,Documenta Opthalmologica, 97:217-228 (1999); Oomen et al., EuropeanJournal of Clinical Investigation, 29:1035-1040 (1999); Vinores et al.,Pathol. Res. Pract., 194:497-505 (1998); Antonetti et al., Diabetes,47:1953-1959 (1998), Popov et al., Acta Diabetol., 34:285-293 (1997);Yamaji et al., Circulation Research, 72:947-957 (1993); Vinores et al.,Histochemical Journal, 25:648-663 (1993); Beals et al., MicrovascularResearch, 45:11-19 (1993); Caldwell et al., Investigative Opthalmol.Visual Sci., 33(5):16101619 (1992).

Endothelial transport in fenestrated endothelium also occurs bytranscytosis and the paracellular pathway. In addition, endothelialtransport occurs by means of the fenestrae. Fenestrated endothelia showa remarkably high permeability to water and small hydrophilic solutesdue to the presence of the fenestrae.

The fenestrae may or may not be covered by a diaphragm. The locations ofendothelium with diaphragmed fenestrae include endocrine tissue (e.g.,pancreatic islets and adrenal cortex), gastrointestinal mucosa and renalperitubular capillaries. The permeability to plasma proteins offenestrated endothelium with diaphragmed fenestrae does not exceed thatof continuous endothelium.

The locations of endothelium with nondiaphragmed fenestrae include theglomeruli of the kidneys. The glomerular fenestrated endothelium iscovered by a glycocalyx that extends into the fenestrae (formingso-called “seive plugs”) and by a more loosely associated endothelialcell surface layer of glycoproteins. Mathematical analyses of functionalpermselectivity studies have concluded that the glomerular endothelialcell glycocalyx, including that present in the fenestrae, and itsassociated surface layer account for the retention of up to 95% ofplasma proteins within the circulation.

Loss of fenestrae in the glomerular endothelium has been found to beassociated with proteinuria in several diseases, including diabeticnephropathy, transplant glomerulopathy, pre-eclampsia, diabetes, renalfailure, cyclosporine nephropathy, serum sickness nephritis and Thy-1nephritis. Actin rearrangement and, in particular, depolymerization ofstress fibers have been found to be important for the formation andmaintenance of fenestrae.

In support of the foregoing discussion of fenestrated endothelia and foradditional information, see Satchell et al., Am. J. Physiol. RenalPhysiol., 296:F947-F956 (2009); Haraldsson et al., Curr. Opin. Nephrol.Hypertens., 18:331-335 (2009); Ichimura et al., J. Am. Soc. Nephrol.,19:1463-1471 (2008); Ballermann, Nephron Physiol., 106:19-25 (2007);Toyoda et al., Diabetes, 56:2155-2160 (2007); Stan, “EndothelialStructures Involved In Vascular Permeability,” pages 679-688,Endothelial Biomedicine (ed. Aird, Cambridge University Press,Cambridge, 2007); Simionescu and Antohe, “Functional Ultrastructure ofthe Vascular Endothelium: Changes in Various Pathologies,” pages 42-69,The Vascular Endothelium I (eds. Moncada and Higgs, Springer-Verlag,Berlin, 2006).

Endothelial transport in sinusoidal endothelium occurs by transcytosisand through the intercellular gaps (interendothelial slits) andintracellular gaps (fenestrae). Treatment of sinusoidal endothelium withactin filament-disrupting drugs can induce a substantial and rapidincrease in the number of gaps, indicating regulation of the porosity ofthe endothelial lining by the actin cytoskeleton. Other cytoskeletonaltering drugs have been reported to change the diameters of fenestrae.Therefore, the fenestrae-associated cytoskeleton probably controls theimportant function of endothelial filtration in sinusodial endotheluium.In liver, defenestration (loss of fenestrae), which causes a reductionin permeability of the endothelium, has been associated with thepathogenesis of several diseases and conditions, including aging,atherogenesis, atherosclerosis, cirrhosis, fibrosis, liver failure andprimary and metastatic liver cancers. In support of the foregoing andfor additional information, see Yokomori, Med. Mol. Morphol., 41:1-4(2008); Stan, “Endothelial Structures Involved In VascularPermeability,” pages 679-688, Endothelial Biomedicine (ed. Aird,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007); DeLeve, “The HepaticSinusoidal Endothelial Cell,” pages 1226-1238, Endothelial Biomedicine(ed. Aird, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007); Pries andKuebler, “Normal Endothelium,” pages 1-40, The Vascular Endothelium I(eds. Moncada and Higgs, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2006); Simionescu andAntohe, “Functional Ultrastructure of the Vascular Endothelium: Changesin Various Pathologies,” pages 42-69, The Vascular Endothelium I (eds.Moncada and Higgs, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2006); Braet and Wisse,Comparative Hepatology, 1:1-17 (2002); Kanai et al., Anat. Rec.,244:175-181 (1996); Kempka et al., Exp. Cell Res., 176:38-48 (1988);Kishimoto et al., Am. J. Anat., 178:241-249 (1987).

The invention provides a method of inhibiting vascular hyperpermeabilitypresent in any tissue or organ containing or surrounded by continuousendothelium. As noted above, continuous endothelium is present in, oraround, the brain (blood brain barrier), diaphragm, duodenalmusculature, fat, heart, some areas of the kidneys (papillarymicrovasculature, descending vasa recta), large blood vessels, lungs,mesentery, nerves, retina (blood retinal barrier), skeletal muscle,skin, testis, umbilical vein and other tissues and organs of the body.Preferably, the continuous endothelium is that found in or around thebrain, heart, lungs, nerves or retina.

The invention also provides a method of inhibiting vascularhyperpermeability present in any tissue or organ containing orsurrounded by fenestrated endothelium. As noted above, fenestratedendothelium is present in, or around, the kidney (glomeruli, peritubularcapillaries and ascending vasa recta), pancreas, adrenal glands,endocrine glands and intestine. Preferably, the fenestrated endotheliumis that found in the kidneys, especially that found in the glomeruli ofthe kidneys.

Further, any disease or condition mediated by vascular hyperpermeabilitycan be treated by the method of the invention. Such diseases andconditions include diabetes, hypertension and atherosclerosis.

In particular, the vascular complications of diabetes, including thoseof the brain, heart, kidneys, lung, mesentery, nerves, retina, skeletalmuscle, skin and other tissues and organs containing continuous orfenestrated endothelium, can be treated by the present invention. Thesevascular complications include edema, accumulation of LDL in thesubendothelial space, accelerated atherosclerosis, and the following:brain (accelerated aging of vessel walls), heart (myocardial edema,myocardial fibrosis, diastolic dysfunction, diabetic cardiomyopathy),kidneys (diabetic nephropathy), lung (retardation of lung development inthe fetuses of diabetic mothers, alterations of several pulmonaryphysiological parameters and increased susceptibility to infections),mesentery (vascular hyperplasy), nerves (diabetic neuropathy), retina(macular edema and diabetic retinopathy) and skin (redness,discoloration, dryness and ulcerations).

Diabetic retinopathy is a leading cause of blindness that affectsapproximately 25% of the estimated 21 million Americans with diabetes.Although its incidence and progression can be reduced by intensiveglycemic and blood pressure control, nearly all patients with type 1diabetes mellitus and over 60% of those with type 2 diabetes mellituseventually develop diabetic retinopathy. There are two stages ofdiabetic retinopathy. The first, non-proliferative retinopathy, is theearlier stage of the disease and is characterized by increased vascularpermeability, microaneurysms, edema and eventually vessel closures.Neovascularization is not a component of the nonproliferative phase.Most visual loss during this stage is due to the fluid accumulating inthe macula, the central area of the retina. This accumulation of fluidis called macular edema and can cause temporary or permanent decreasedvision. The second stage of diabetic retinopathy is called proliferativeretinopathy and is characterized by abnormal new vessel formation.Unfortunately, this abnormal neovascularization can be very damagingbecause it can cause bleeding in the eye, retinal scar tissue, diabeticretinal detachments or glaucoma, any of which can cause decreased visionor blindness. Macular edema can also occur in the proliferative phase.

Diabetic neuropathy is a common serious complication of diabetes. Thereare four main types of diabetic neuropathy: peripheral neuropathy,autonomic neuropathy, radiculoplexus neuropathy and mononeuropathy. Thesigns and symptoms of peripheral neuropathy, the most common type ofdiabetic neuropathy, include numbness or reduced ability to feel pain orchanges in temperature (especially in the feet and toes), a tingling orburning feeling, sharp pain, pain when walking, extreme sensitivity tothe lightest touch, muscle weakness, difficulty walking, and seriousfoot problems (such as ulcers, infections, deformities and bone andjoint pain). Autonomic neuropathy affects the autonomic nervous systemthat controls the heart, bladder, lungs, stomach, intestines, sex organsand eyes, and problems in any of these areas can occur. Radiculoplexusneuropathy (also called diabetic amyotrophy, femoral neuropathy orproximal neuropathy) usually affects nerves in the hips, shoulders orabdomen, usually on one side of the body. Mononeuropathy means damage tojust one nerve, typically in an arm, leg or the face. Commoncomplications of diabetic neuropathy include loss of limbs (e.g., toes,feet or legs), charcot joints, urinary tract infections, urinaryincontinence, hypoglycemia unawareness (may even be fatal), low bloodpressure, digestive problems (e.g., constipation, diarrhea, nausea andvomiting), sexual dysfunction (e.g., erectile dysfunction), andincreased or decreased sweating. As can be seen, symptoms can range frommild to painful, disabling and even fatal.

Diabetic nephropathy is the most common cause of end-stage renal diseasein the United States. It is a vascular complication of diabetes thataffects the glomerular capillaries of the kidney and reduces thekidney's filtration ability. Nephropathy is first indicated by theappearance of hyperfiltration and then microalbuminuria. Heavyproteinuria and a progressive decline in renal function precedeend-stage renal disease. Typically, before any signs of nephropathyappear, retinopathy has usually been diagnosed. Renal transplant isusually recommended to patients with end-stage renal disease due todiabetes. Survival rate at 5 years for patients receiving a transplantis about 60% compared with only 2% for those on dialysis.

Hypertension typically develops over many years, and it affects nearlyeveryone eventually. Uncontrolled hypertension increases the risk ofserious health problems, including heart attack, congestive heartfailure, stroke, peripheral artery disease, kidney failure, aneurysms,eye damage, and problems with memory or understanding.

Atherosclerosis also develops gradually. Atherosclerosis can affect thecoronary arteries, the carotid artery, the peripheral arteries or themicrovasculature, and complications of atherosclerosis include coronaryartery disease (which can cause angina or a heart attack), coronarymicrovascular disease, carotid artery disease (which can cause atransient ischemic attack or stroke), peripheral artery disease (whichcan cause loss of sensitivity to heat and cold or even tissue death),and aneurysms.

Additional diseases and conditions that can be treated according to theinvention include acute lung injury, acute respiratory distress syndrome(ARDS), age-related macular degeneration, cerebral edema, choroidaledema, choroiditis, coronary microvascular disease, cerebralmicrovascular disease, Eals disease, edema caused by injury (e.g.,trauma or burns), edema associated with hypertension, glomerularvascular leakage, hemorrhagic shock, Irvine Gass Syndrome, ischemia,macular edema (e.g., caused by vascular occlusions, post-intraocularsurgery (e.g., cataract surgery), uveitis or retinitis pigmentosa, inaddition to that caused by diabetes), nephritis (e.g.,glomerulonephritis, serum sickness nephritis and Thy-1 nephritis),nephropathies, nephrotic edema, nephrotic syndrome, neuropathies, organfailure due to tissue edema (e.g., in sepsis or due to trauma),pre-eclampsia, pulmonary edema, pulmonary hypertension, renal failure,retinal edema, retinal hemorrhage, retinal vein occlusions (e.g., branchor central vein occlusions), retinitis, retinopathies (e.g.,artherosclerotic retinopathy, hypertensive retinopathy, radiationretinopathy, sickle cell retinopathy and retinopathy of prematurity, inaddition to diabetic retinopathy), silent cerebral infarction, systemicinflammatory response syndromes (SIRS), transplant glomerulopathy,uveitis, vascular leakage syndrome, vitreous hemorrhage and Von HippleLindau disease. In addition, certain drugs, including those used totreat multiple sclerosis, are known to cause vascular hyperpermeability,and danazol can be used to reduce this unwanted side effect when usingthese drugs. Hereditary and acquired angioedema are expressly excludedfrom those diseases and conditions that can be treated according to theinvention.

“Treat,” “treating” or “treatment” is used herein to mean to reduce(wholly or partially) the symptoms, duration or severity of a disease orcondition, including curing the disease, or to prevent the disease orcondition.

Recent evidence indicates that transcytosis-caused hyperpermeability isthe first step of a process that ultimately leads to tissue and organdamage in many diseases and conditions. Accordingly, the presentinvention provides a means of early intervention in these diseases andconditions which can reduce, delay or even potentially prevent thetissue and organ damage seen in them. For instance, an animal can betreated immediately upon diagnosis of one of the disease or conditionstreatable according to the invention (those diseases and conditionsdescribed above). Alternatively, preferred is the treatment of animalswho have early signs of, or a predisposition to develop, such a diseaseor condition prior to the existence of symptoms. Early signs of, andrisk factors for, diabetes, hypertension and atherosclerosis are wellknown, and treatment of an animal exhibiting these early signs or riskfactors can be started prior to the presence of symptoms of the diseaseor condition (i.e., prophylactically).

For instance, treatment of a patient who is diagnosed with diabetes canbe started immediately upon diagnosis. In particular, diabetics shouldpreferably be treated with a danazol compound prior to any symptoms of avascular complication being present, although this is not usuallypossible, since most diabetics show such symptoms when they arediagnosed (see below). Alternatively, diabetics should be treated whilenonproliferative diabetic retinopathy is mild (i.e., mild levels ofmicroaneurysms and intraretinal hemorrhage). See Diabetic Retinopathy,page 9 (Ed. Elia Duh, M.D., Human Press, 2008). Such early treatmentwill provide the best chance of preventing macular edema and progressionof the retinopathy to proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Also, thepresence of diabetic retinopathy is considered a sign that othermicrovascular complications of diabetes exist or will develop (see Id.,pages 474-477), and early treatment may also prevent or reduce theseadditional complications. Of course, more advanced diseases andconditions that are vascular complications of diabetes can also betreated with beneficial results.

However, as noted above, vascular complications are often alreadypresent by the time diabetes is diagnosed. Accordingly, it is preferableto prophylactically treat a patient who has early signs of, or apredisposition to develop, diabetes. These early signs and risk factorsinclude fasting glucose that is high, but not high enough to beclassified as diabetes (“prediabetes”), hyperinsulinemia, hypertension,dyslipidemia (high cholesterol, high triglycerides, high low-densitylipoprotein, and/or low level of high-density lipoprotein), obesity(body mass index above 25), inactivity, over 45 years of age, inadequatesleep, family history of diabetes, minority race, history of gestationaldiabetes and history of polycystic ovary syndrome.

Similarly, treatment of a patient who is diagnosed with hypertension canbe started immediately upon diagnosis. Hypertension typically does notcause any symptoms, but prophylactic treatment can be started in apatient who has a predispostion to develop hypertension. Risk factorsfor hypertension include age, race (hypertension is more common blacks),family history (hypertension runs in families), overweight or obesity,lack of activity, smoking tobacco, too much salt in the diet, too littlepotassium in the diet, too little vitamin D in the diet, drinking toomuch alcohol, high levels of stress, certain chronic conditions (e.g.,high cholesterol, diabetes, kidney disease and sleep apnea) and use ofcertain drugs (e.g., oral contraceptives, amphetamines, diet pills, andsome cold and allergy medications).

Treatment of a patient who is diagnosed with atherosclerosis can bestarted immediately upon diagnosis. However, it is preferable toprophylactically treat a patient who has early signs of, or apredispostion to develop, atherosclerosis. Early signs and risk factorsfor atherosclerosis include age, a family history of aneurysm or earlyheart disease, hypertension, high cholesterol, high triglycerides,insulin resistance, diabetes, obesity, smoking, lack of physicalactivity, unhealthy diet, and high level of C-reactive protein.

The method of the invention for inhibiting vascular hyperpermeabilitycomprises administering an effective amount of a danazol compound to ananimal in need thereof to inhibit the vascular hyperpermeability. Asused here, “a danazol compound” means danazol, prodrugs of danazol andpharmaceutically acceptable salts of danazol and its prodrugs.

Danazol (17α-pregna-2,4-dien-20-yno[2,3-d]isoxazol-17β-ol) is a knownsynthetic steroid hormone. It's structure is:

Methods of making danazol are known in the art. See e.g., U.S. Pat. No.3,135,743, and GB Patent No. 905,844. Also, danazol is availablecommercially from many sources, including Barr Pharmaceuticals, Inc.,Lannett Co., Inc., sanofi-aventis Canada, Sigma-Aldrich, and ParchemTrading Ltd.

“Prodrug” means any compound which releases an active parent drug(danazol in this case) in vivo when such prodrug is administered to ananimal. Prodrugs of danazol include danazol wherein the hydroxyl groupis bonded to any group that may be cleaved in vivo to generate the freehydroxyl. Examples of danazol prodrugs include esters (e.g., acetate,formate, and benzoate derivatives) of danazol.

The pharmaceutically-acceptable salts of danazol and its prodrugsinclude conventional non-toxic salts, such as salts derived frominorganic acids (such as hydrochloric, hydrobromic, sulfuric,phosphoric, nitric, and the like), organic acids (such as acetic,propionic, succinic, glycolic, stearic, lactic, malic, tartaric, citric,glutamic, aspartic, benzoic, salicylic, oxalic, ascorbic acid, and thelike) or bases (such as the hydroxide, carbonate or bicarbonate of apharmaceutically-acceptable metal cation or organic cations derived fromN,N-dibenzylethylenediamine, D-glucosamine, or ethylenediamine). Thesalts are prepared in a conventional manner, e.g., by neutralizing thefree base form of the compound with an acid. In particular, isoxazoles,such as danazol, are weakly basic substances and will form acid-additionsalts upon addition of strong acids and quaternary ammonium salts uponaddition of esters of strong acids (e.g., an ester of a strong inorganicor organic sulfonic acid, preferably a lower-alkyl, lower alkenyl orlower aralkyl ester, such as methyl iodide, ethyl iodide, ethyl bromide,propyl bromide, butyl bromide, allyl bromide, methyl sulfate, methylbenezenesulfonate, methyl-p-toluene-sulfonate, benzyl chloride and thelike). See U.S. Pat. No. 3,135,743.

As noted above, a danazol compound can be used to inhibit vascularhyperpermeability and to treat a disease or condition mediated byvascular hyperpermeability. To do so, the danazol compound isadministered to an animal in need of treatment. Preferably, the animalis a mammal, such as a rabbit, goat, dog, cat, horse or human. Mostpreferably, the animal is a human.

Effective dosage forms, modes of administration and dosage amounts forthe compounds of the invention (i.e., danazol, a prodrug of danazol or apharmaceutically-acceptable salt of either one of them) may bedetermined empirically using the guidance provided herein. It isunderstood by those skilled in the art that the dosage amount will varywith the particular disease or condition to be treated, the severity ofthe disease or condition, the route(s) of administration, the durationof the treatment, the identity of any other drugs being administered tothe animal, the age, size and species of the animal, and like factorsknown in the medical and veterinary arts. In general, a suitable dailydose of a compound of the present invention will be that amount of thecompound which is the lowest dose effective to produce a therapeuticeffect. However, the daily dosage will be determined by an attendingphysician or veterinarian within the scope of sound medical judgment. Ifdesired, the effective daily dose may be administered as two, three,four, five, six or more sub-doses, administered separately atappropriate intervals throughout the day. Administration of the compoundshould be continued until an acceptable response is achieved.

Danazol compounds have previously been reported to inhibit angiogenesis.See PCT application WO 2007/009087. Surprisingly and quite unexpectedly,it has been found that danazol compounds can be used in the practice ofthe present invention at optimum doses that are about 100-1000 timeslower than those previously reported for inhibiting angiogenesis andsubstantially less than those amounts currently administered to patientsfor the treatment of other diseases and conditions (typically 200-800mg/day for an adult human). Uses of these lower doses of danazolcompounds should avoid any significant side effects, perhaps all sideeffects, which will be especially advantageous for early or prophylatictreatment of diseases and conditions according to the present invention.

In particular, an effective dosage amount of a danazol compound forinhibiting vascular hyperpermeability will be from 0.1 ng/kg/day to 35mg/kg/day, preferably from 40 ng/kg/day to 5.0 mg/kg/day, mostpreferably from 100 ng/kg/day to 1.5 mg/kg/day. An effective dosageamount will also be that amount that will result in a concentration in arelevant fluid (e.g., blood) from 0.0001 μM to 5 μM, preferably from 0.1μM to 1.0 μM, more preferably from 0.1 μM to 0.5 μM, most preferablyabout 0.1 μM. An effective dosage amount will also be that amount thatwill result in a concentration in the tissue or organ to be treated ofabout 0.17% (weight/weight) or less, preferably from 0.00034% to 0.17%,most preferably 0.0034% to 0.017%. When given topically or locally, thedanazol compound will preferably be administered at a concentration from0.0001 μM to 5 μM, preferably from 0.1 μM to 1.0 μM, more preferablyfrom 0.1 μM to 0.5 μM, most preferably about 0.1 μM, or at aconcentration of about 0.17% (weight/weight) or less, preferably from0.00034% to 0.17%, most preferably 0.0034% to 0.017%. When given orallyto an adult human, the dose will preferably be from about 1 ng/day toabout 100 mg/day, more preferably the dose will be from about 1 mg/dayto about 100 mg/day, most preferably the dose will be from about 10mg/day to about 90 mg/day, preferably given in two equal doses per day.Further, danazol is expected to accumulate in cells and tissues, so thatan initial (loading) dose (e.g. 100 mg per day) may be reduced after aperiod of time (e.g., 2-4 weeks) to a lower maintenance dose (e.g. 1 mgper day) which can be given indefinitely without significant sideeffects, perhaps without any side effects. As used herein, a“vascular-hyperpermeability-inhibiting amount” of a danazol compound isdefined to mean those amounts set forth above in this paragraph.

The invention also provides a method of modulating the cytoskeleton ofendothelial cells in an animal. This embodiment of the invention isbased on the discoveries that danazol inhibits F-actin stress fiberformation, causes the formation of cortical actin rings, enhances andprolongs the formation of cortical actin rings by sphingosine-1phosphate (S1P), inhibits RhoA, increases phosphorylation ofVE-cadherin, appears to activate barrier-stabilizing GTPases and appearsto stabilize microtubules. Modulation of the cytoskeleton can reducevascular hyperpermeability and increase vascular hypopermeability (i.e.,permeability below basal levels), thereby returning the endothelium tohomeostasis. Accordingly, those diseases and conditions mediated byvascular hyperpermeability can be treated (see above) and those diseasesand conditions mediated by vascular hypopermeability can also betreated. The latter type of diseases and conditions include aging liver,atherogenesis, atherosclerosis, cirrhosis, fibrosis of the liver, liverfailure and primary and metastatic liver cancers.

The method of modulating the cytoskeleton of endothelial cells comprisesadministering an effective amount of a danazol compound to the animal.“Danazol compound” and “animal” have the same meanings as set forthabove.

Effective dosage forms, modes of administration and dosage amounts forthe compounds of the invention (i.e., danazol, a prodrug of danazol or apharmaceutically-acceptable salt of either one of them) for modulatingthe cytoskeleton may be determined empirically using the guidanceprovided herein. It is understood by those skilled in the art that thedosage amount will vary with the particular disease or condition to betreated, the severity of the disease or condition, the route(s) ofadministration, the duration of the treatment, the identity of any otherdrugs being administered to the animal, the age, size and species of theanimal, and like factors known in the medical and veterinary arts. Ingeneral, a suitable daily dose of a compound of the present inventionwill be that amount of the compound which is the lowest dose effectiveto produce a therapeutic effect. However, the daily dosage will bedetermined by an attending physician or veterinarian within the scope ofsound medical judgment. If desired, the effective daily dose may beadministered as two, three, four, five, six or more sub-doses,administered separately at appropriate intervals throughout the day.Administration of the compound should be continued until an acceptableresponse is achieved.

In particular, an effective dosage amount of a danazol compound formodulating the cytoskeleton of endothelial cells will be from 0.1ng/kg/day to 35 mg/kg/day, preferably from 40 ng/kg/day to 5.0mg/kg/day, most preferably from 100 ng/kg/day to 1.5 mg/kg/day. Aneffective dosage amount will also be that amount that will result in aconcentration in a relevant fluid (e.g., blood) from 0.0001 μM to 5 μM,preferably from 0.1 μM to 1.0 μM, more preferably from 0.1 μM to 0.5 μM,most preferably about 0.1 μM. An effective dosage amount will also bethat amount that will result in a concentration in the tissue or organto be treated of about 0.17% (weight/weight) or less, preferably from0.00034% to 0.17%, most preferably 0.0034% to 0.017%. When giventopically or locally, the danazol compound will preferably beadministered at a concentration from 0.0001 μM to 5 μM, preferably from0.1 μM to 1.0 μM, more preferably from 0.1 μM to 0.5 μM, most preferablyabout 0.1 μM, or at a concentration of about 0.17% (weight/weight) orless, preferably from 0.00034% to 0.17%, most preferably 0.0034% to0.017%. When given orally to an adult human, the dose will preferably befrom about 1 ng/day to about 100 mg/day, more preferably the dose willbe from about 1 mg/day to about 100 mg/day, most preferably the dosewill be from about 10 mg/day to about 90 mg/day, preferably given in twoequal doses per day. Further, danazol is expected to accumulate in cellsand tissues, so that an initial (loading) dose (e.g. 100 mg per day) maybe reduced after a period of time (e.g., 2-4 weeks) to a lowermaintenance dose (e.g. 1 mg per day) which can be given indefinitelywithout significant side effects, perhaps without any side effects.

The compounds of the present invention (i.e., danazol, prodrugs thereofand pharmaceutically-acceptable salts of either of them) may beadministered to an animal patient for therapy by any suitable route ofadministration, including orally, nasally, parenterally (e.g.,intravenously, intraperitoneally, subcutaneously or intramuscularly),transdermally, intraocularly and topically (including buccally andsublingually). Generally preferred is oral administration for anydisease or condition treatable according to the invention. The preferredroutes of administration for treatment of diseases and conditions of theeye are orally, intraocularly and topically. Most preferred is orally.It is quite unexpected and surprising that diseases of the eye can betreated by oral administration of a danazol compound, since successfultreatment of such diseases and conditions by oral administration of adrug has not been previously reported. The preferred routes ofadministration for treatment of diseases and conditions of the brain areorally and parenterally. Most preferred is orally.

While it is possible for a compound of the present invention to beadministered alone, it is preferable to administer the compound as apharmaceutical formulation (composition). The pharmaceuticalcompositions of the invention comprise a compound or compounds of theinvention as an active ingredient in admixture with one or morepharmaceutically-acceptable carriers and, optionally, with one or moreother compounds, drugs or other materials. Each carrier must be“acceptable” in the sense of being compatible with the other ingredientsof the formulation and not injurious to the animal.Pharmaceutically-acceptable carriers are well known in the art.Regardless of the route of administration selected, the compounds of thepresent invention are formulated into pharmaceutically-acceptable dosageforms by conventional methods known to those of skill in the art. See,e.g., Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences.

Formulations of the invention suitable for oral administration may be inthe form of capsules, cachets, pills, tablets, powders, granules or as asolution or a suspension in an aqueous or non-aqueous liquid, or anoil-in-water or water-in-oil liquid emulsions, or as an elixir or syrup,or as pastilles (using an inert base, such as gelatin and glycerin, orsucrose and acacia), and the like, each containing a predeterminedamount of a compound or compounds of the present invention as an activeingredient. A compound or compounds of the present invention may also beadministered as bolus, electuary or paste.

In solid dosage forms of the invention for oral administration(capsules, tablets, pills, dragees, powders, granules and the like), theactive ingredient (i.e., danazol, a prodrug of danazol, apharmaceutically-acceptable salt of either one of them, or combinationsof the foregoing) is mixed with one or more pharmaceutically acceptablecarriers, such as sodium citrate or dicalcium phosphate, and/or any ofthe following: (1) fillers or extenders, such as starches, lactose,sucrose, glucose, mannitol, and/or silicic acid; (2) binders, such as,for example, carboxymethylcellulose, alginates, gelatin, polyvinylpyrrolidone, sucrose and/or acacia; (3) humectants, such as glycerol;(4) disintegrating agents, such as agar-agar, calcium carbonate, potatoor tapioca starch, alginic acid, certain silicates, and sodiumcarbonate; (5) solution retarding agents, such as paraffin; (6)absorption accelerators, such as quaternary ammonium compounds; (7)wetting agents, such as, for example, cetyl alcohol and glycerolmonosterate; (8) absorbents, such as kaolin and bentonite clay; (9)lubricants, such as talc, calcium stearate, magnesium stearate, solidpolyethylene glycols, sodium lauryl sulfate, and mixtures thereof; and(10) coloring agents. In the case of capsules, tablets and pills, thepharmaceutical compositions may also comprise buffering agents. Solidcompositions of a similar type may be employed as fillers in soft andhard-filled gelatin capsules using such excipients as lactose or milksugars, as well as high molecular weight polyethylene glycols and thelike.

A tablet may be made by compression or molding optionally with one ormore accessory ingredients. Compressed tablets may be prepared usingbinder (for example, gelatin or hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose),lubricant, inert diluent, preservative, disintegrant (for example,sodium starch glycolate or cross-linked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose),surface-active or dispersing agent. Molded tablets may be made bymolding in a suitable machine a mixture of the powdered compoundmoistened with an inert liquid diluent.

The tablets, and other solid dosage forms of the pharmaceuticalcompositions of the present invention, such as dragees, capsules, pillsand granules, may optionally be scored or prepared with coatings andshells, such as enteric coatings and other coatings well known in thepharmaceutical-formulating art. They may also be formulated so as toprovide slow or controlled release of the active ingredient thereinusing, for example, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose in varying proportionsto provide the desired release profile, other polymer matrices,liposomes and/or microspheres. They may be sterilized by, for example,filtration through a bacteria-retaining filter. These compositions mayalso optionally contain opacifying agents and may be of a compositionthat they release the active ingredient only, or preferentially, in acertain portion of the gastrointestinal tract, optionally, in a delayedmanner. Examples of embedding compositions which can be used includepolymeric substances and waxes. The active ingredient can also be inmicroencapsulated form.

Liquid dosage forms for oral administration of the compounds of theinvention include pharmaceutically-acceptable emulsions, microemulsions,solutions, suspensions, syrups and elixirs. In addition to the activeingredient, the liquid dosage forms may contain inert diluents commonlyused in the art, such as, for example, water or other solvents,solubilizing agents and emulsifiers, such as ethyl alcohol, isopropylalcohol, ethyl carbonate, ethyl acetate, benzyl alcohol, benzylbenzoate, propylene glycol, 1,3-butylene glycol, oils (in particular,cottonseed, groundnut, corn, germ, olive, castor and sesame oils),glycerol, tetrahydrofuryl alcohol, polyethylene glycols and fatty acidesters of sorbitan, and mixtures thereof.

Besides inert diluents, the oral compositions can also include adjuvantssuch as wetting agents, emulsifying and suspending agents, sweetening,flavoring, coloring, perfuming and preservative agents.

Suspensions, in addition to the active ingredient, may containsuspending agents as, for example, ethoxylated isostearyl alcohols,polyoxyethylene sorbitol and sorbitan esters, microcrystallinecellulose, aluminum metahydroxide, bentonite, agar-agar and tragacanth,and mixtures thereof.

The invention also provides pharmaceutical products suitable fortreatment of the eye. Such pharmaceutical products includepharmaceutical compositions, devices and implants (which may becompositions or devices).

Pharmaceutical formulations (compositions) for intraocular injection ofa compound or compounds of the invention into the eyeball includesolutions, emulsions, suspensions, particles, capsules, microspheres,liposomes, matrices, etc. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,060,463, U.S.Patent Application Publication No. 2005/0101582, and PCT application WO2004/043480, the complete disclosures of which are incorporated hereinby reference. For instance, a pharmaceutical formulation for intraocularinjection may comprise one or more compounds of the invention incombination with one or more pharmaceutically-acceptable sterileisotonic aqueous or non-aqueous solutions, suspensions or emulsions,which may contain antioxidants, buffers, suspending agents, thickeningagents or viscosity-enhancing agents (such as a hyaluronic acidpolymer). Examples of suitable aqueous and nonaqueous carriers includewater, saline (preferably 0.9%), dextrose in water (preferably 5%),buffers, dimethylsulfoxide, alcohols and polyols (such as glycerol,propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, and the like). These compositionsmay also contain adjuvants such as wetting agents and emulsifying agentsand dispersing agents. In addition, prolonged absorption of theinjectable pharmaceutical form may be brought about by the inclusion ofagents which delay absorption such as polymers and gelatin. Injectabledepot forms can be made by incorporating the drug into microcapsules ormicrospheres made of biodegradable polymers such aspolylactide-polyglycolide. Examples of other biodegradable polymersinclude poly(orthoesters), poly(glycolic) acid, poly(lactic) acid,polycaprolactone and poly(anhydrides). Depot injectable formulations arealso prepared by entrapping the drug in liposomes (composed of the usualingredients, such as dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine) or microemulsionswhich are compatible with eye tissue. Depending on the ratio of drug topolymer or lipid, the nature of the particular polymer or lipidcomponents, the type of liposome employed, and whether the microcapsulesor microspheres are coated or uncoated, the rate of drug release frommicrocapsules, microspheres and liposomes can be controlled.

The compounds of the invention can also be administered surgically as anocular implant. For instance, a reservoir container having a diffusiblewall of polyvinyl alcohol or polyvinyl acetate and containing a compoundor compounds of the invention can be implanted in or on the sclera. Asanother example, a compound or compounds of the invention can beincorporated into a polymeric matrix made of a polymer, such aspolycaprolactone, poly(glycolic) acid, poly(lactic) acid,poly(anhydride), or a lipid, such as sebacic acid, and may be implantedon the sclera or in the eye. This is usually accomplished with theanimal receiving a topical or local anaesthetic and using a smallincision made behind the cornea. The matrix is then inserted through theincision and sutured to the sclera.

The compounds of the invention can also be administered topically to theeye, and a preferred embodiment of the invention is a topicalpharmaceutical composition suitable for application to the eye. Topicalpharmaceutical compositions suitable for application to the eye includesolutions, suspensions, dispersions, drops, gels, hydrogels andointments. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,407,926 and PCT applications WO2004/058289, WO 01/30337 and WO 01/68053, the complete disclosures ofall of which are incorporated herein by reference.

Topical formulations suitable for application to the eye comprise one ormore compounds of the invention in an aqueous or nonaqueous base. Thetopical formulations can also include absorption enhancers, permeationenhancers, thickening agents, viscosity enhancers, agents for adjustingand/or maintaining the pH, agents to adjust the osmotic pressure,preservatives, surfactants, buffers, salts (preferably sodium chloride),suspending agents, dispersing agents, solubilizing agents, stabilizersand/or tonicity agents. Topical formulations suitable for application tothe eye will preferably comprise an absorption or permeation enhancer topromote absorption or permeation of the compound or compounds of theinvention into the eye and/or a thickening agent or viscosity enhancerthat is capable of increasing the residence time of a compound orcompounds of the invention in the eye. See PCT applications WO2004/058289, WO 01/30337 and WO 01/68053. Exemplaryabsorption/permeation enhancers include methysulfonylmethane, alone orin combination with dimethylsulfoxide, carboxylic acids and surfactants.Exemplary thickening agents and viscosity enhancers include dextrans,polyethylene glycols, polyvinylpyrrolidone, polysaccharide gels,Gelrite®, cellulosic polymers (such as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose),carboxyl-containing polymers (such as polymers or copolymers of acrylicacid), polyvinyl alcohol and hyaluronic acid or a salt thereof.

Liquid dosage forms (e.g., solutions, suspensions, dispersions anddrops) suitable for treatment of the eye can be prepared, for example,by dissolving, dispersing, suspending, etc. a compound or compounds ofthe invention in a vehicle, such as, for example, water, saline, aqueousdextrose, glycerol, ethanol and the like, to form a solution, dispersionor suspension. If desired, the pharmaceutical formulation may alsocontain minor amounts of non-toxic auxillary substances, such as wettingor emulsifying agents, pH buffering agents and the like, for examplesodium acetate, sorbitan monolaurate, triethanolamine sodium acetate,triethanolamine oleate, etc.

Aqueous solutions and suspensions suitable for treatment of the eye caninclude, in addition to a compound or compounds of the invention,preservatives, surfactants, buffers, salts (preferably sodium chloride),tonicity agents and water. If suspensions are used, the particle sizesshould be less than 10 μm to minimize eye irritation. If solutions orsuspensions are used, the amount delivered to the eye should not exceed50 μl to avoid excessive spillage from the eye.

Colloidal suspensions suitable for treatment of the eye are generallyformed from microparticles (i.e., microspheres, nanospheres,microcapsules or nanocapsules, where microspheres and nanospheres aregenerally monolithic particles of a polymer matrix in which theformulation is trapped, adsorbed, or otherwise contained, while withmicrocapsules and nanocapsules the formulation is actuallyencapsulated). The upper limit for the size of these microparticles isabout 5μ to about 10μ.

Ophthalmic ointments suitable for treatment of the eye include acompound or compounds of the invention in an appropriate base, such asmineral oil, liquid lanolin, white petrolatum, a combination of two orall three of the foregoing, or polyethylene-mineral oil gel. Apreservative may optionally be included.

Ophthalmic gels suitable for treatment of the eye include a compound orcompounds of the invention suspended in a hydrophilic base, such asCarpobol-940 or a combination of ethanol, water and propylene glycol(e.g., in a ratio of 40:40:20). A gelling agent, such ashydroxylethylcellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose,hydroxypropylmethylcellulose or ammoniated glycyrrhizinate, is used. Apreservative and/or a tonicity agent may optionally be included.

Hydrogels suitable for treatment of the eye are formed by incorporationof a swellable, gel-forming polymer, such as those listed above asthickening agents or viscosity enhancers, except that a formulationreferred to in the art as a “hydrogel” typically has a higher viscositythan a formulation referred to as a “thickened” solution or suspension.In contrast to such preformed hydrogels, a formulation may also beprepared so to form a hydrogel in situ following application to the eye.Such gels are liquid at room temperature but gel at higher temperatures(and thus are termed “thermoreversible” hydrogels), such as when placedin contact with body fluids. Biocompatible polymers that impart thisproperty include acrylic acid polymers and copolymers,N-isopropylacrylamide derivatives and ABA block copolymers of ethyleneoxide and propylene oxide (conventionally referred to as “poloxamers”and available under the Pluronic® tradename from BASF-Wayndotte).

Preferred dispersions are liposomal, in which case the formulation isenclosed within liposomes (microscopic vesicles composed of alternatingaqueous compartments and lipid bilayers).

Eye drops can be formulated with an aqueous or nonaqueous base alsocomprising one or more dispersing agents, solubilizing agents orsuspending agents. Drops can be delivered by means of a simple eyedropper-capped bottle or by means of a plastic bottle adapted to deliverliquid contents dropwise by means of a specially shaped closure.

The compounds of the invention can also be applied topically by means ofdrug-impregnated solid carrier that is inserted into the eye. Drugrelease is generally effected by dissolution or bioerosion of thepolymer, osmosis, or combinations thereof. Several matrix-type deliverysystems can be used. Such systems include hydrophilic soft contactlenses impregnated or soaked with the desired compound of the invention,as well as biodegradable or soluble devices that need not be removedafter placement in the eye. These soluble ocular inserts can be composedof any degradable substance that can be tolerated by the eye and that iscompatible with the compound of the invention that is to beadministered. Such substances include, but are not limited to,poly(vinyl alcohol), polymers and copolymers of polyacrylamide,ethylacrylate and vinylpyrrolidone, as well as cross-linked polypeptidesor polysaccharides, such as chitin.

Dosage forms for the other types of topical administration (i.e., not tothe eye) or for transdermal administration of compounds of the inventioninclude powders, sprays, ointments, pastes, creams, lotions, gels,solutions, patches, drops and inhalants. The active ingredient may bemixed under sterile conditions with a pharmaceutically-acceptablecarrier, and with any buffers, or propellants which may be required. Theointments, pastes, creams and gels may contain, in addition to theactive ingredient, excipients, such as animal and vegetable fats, oils,waxes, paraffins, starch, tragacanth, cellulose derivatives,polyethylene glycols, silicones, bentonites, silicic acid, talc and zincoxide, or mixtures thereof. Powders and sprays can contain, in additionto the active ingredient, excipients such as lactose, talc, silicicacid, aluminum hydroxide, calcium silicates and polyamide powder ormixtures of these substances. Sprays can additionally contain customarypropellants such as chlorofluorohydrocarbons and volatile unsubstitutedhydrocarbons, such as butane and propane. Transdermal patches have theadded advantage of providing controlled delivery of compounds of theinvention to the body. Such dosage forms can be made by dissolving,dispersing or otherwise incorporating one or more compounds of theinvention in a proper medium, such as an elastomeric matrix material.Absorption enhancers can also be used to increase the flux of thecompound across the skin. The rate of such flux can be controlled byeither providing a rate-controlling membrane or dispersing the compoundin a polymer matrix or gel. A drug-impregnated solid carrier (e.g., adressing) can also be used for topical administration.

Pharmaceutical formulations include those suitable for administration byinhalation or insufflation or for nasal administration. Foradministration to the upper (nasal) or lower respiratory tract byinhalation, the compounds of the invention are conveniently deliveredfrom an insufflator, nebulizer or a pressurized pack or other convenientmeans of delivering an aerosol spray. Pressurized packs may comprise asuitable propellant such as dichlorodifluoromethane,trichlorofluoromethane, dichlorotetrafluoroethane, carbon dioxide, orother suitable gas. In the case of a pressurized aerosol, the dosageunit may be determined by providing a valve to deliver a metered amount.

Alternatively, for administration by inhalation or insufflation, thecomposition may take the form of a dry powder, for example, a powder mixof one or more compounds of the invention and a suitable powder base,such as lactose or starch. The powder composition may be presented inunit dosage form in, for example, capsules or cartridges, or, e.g.,gelatin or blister packs from which the powder may be administered withthe aid of an inhalator, insufflator or a metered-dose inhaler.

For intranasal administration, compounds of the invention may beadministered by means of nose drops or a liquid spray, such as by meansof a plastic bottle atomizer or metered-dose inhaler. Liquid sprays areconveniently delivered from pressurized packs. Typical of atomizers arethe Mistometer (Wintrop) and Medihaler (Riker).

Nose drops may be formulated with an aqueous or nonaqueous base alsocomprising one or more dispersing agents, solubilizing agents orsuspending agents. Drops can be delivered by means of a simple eyedropper-capped bottle or by means of a plastic bottle adapted to deliverliquid contents dropwise by means of a specially shaped closure.

Pharmaceutical compositions of this invention suitable for parenteraladministrations comprise one or more compounds of the invention incombination with one or more pharmaceutically-acceptable sterileisotonic aqueous or non-aqueous solutions, dispersions, suspensions oremulsions, or sterile powders which may be reconstituted into sterileinjectable solutions or dispersions just prior to use, which may containantioxidants, buffers, solutes which render the formulation isotonicwith the blood of the intended recipient or suspending or thickeningagents. Also, drug-coated stents may be used.

Examples of suitable aqueous and nonaqueous carriers which may beemployed in the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention includewater, ethanol, polyols (such as glycerol, propylene glycol,polyethylene glycol, and the like), and suitable mixtures thereof,vegetable oils, such as olive oil, and injectable organic esters, suchas ethyl oleate. Proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by theuse of coating materials, such as lecithin, by the maintenance of therequired particle size in the case of dispersions, and by the use ofsurfactants.

These compositions may also contain adjuvants such as wetting agents,emulsifying agents and dispersing agents. It may also be desirable toinclude isotonic agents, such as sugars, sodium chloride, and the likein the compositions. In addition, prolonged absorption of the injectablepharmaceutical form may be brought about by the inclusion of agentswhich delay absorption such as aluminum monosterate and gelatin.

In some cases, in order to prolong the effect of a drug, it is desirableto slow the absorption of the drug from subcutaneous or intramuscularinjection. This may be accomplished by the use of a liquid suspension ofcrystalline or amorphous material having poor water solubility. The rateof absorption of the drug then depends upon its rate of dissolutionwhich, in turn, may depend upon crystal size and crystalline form.Alternatively, delayed absorption of a parenterally-administered drug isaccomplished by dissolving or suspending the drug in an oil vehicle.

Injectable depot forms are made by forming microencapsule matrices ofthe drug in biodegradable polymers such as polylactide-polyglycolide.Depending on the ratio of drug to polymer, and the nature of theparticular polymer employed, the rate of drug release can be controlled.Examples of other biodegradable polymers include poly(orthoesters) andpoly(anhydrides). Depot injectable formulations are also prepared byentrapping the drug in liposomes or microemulsions which are compatiblewith body tissue. The injectable materials can be sterilized forexample, by filtration through a bacterial-retaining filter.

The formulations may be presented in unit-dose or multi-dose sealedcontainers, for example, ampules and vials, and may be stored in alyophilized condition requiring only the addition of the sterile liquidcarrier, for example water for injection, immediately prior to use.Extemporaneous injection solutions and suspensions may be prepared fromsterile powders, granules and tablets of the type described above.

A danazol compound may be given alone to treat a disease or conditioninvolving vascular hyperpermeability or dysfunction of the cytoskeleton.Alternatively, the danazol compound may be given in combination with oneor more other treatments or drugs suitable for treating the disease orcondition. For instance, the danazol compound can be administered priorto, in conjunction with (including simultaneously with), or after theother treatment or drug. In the case of another drug, the drug and thedanazol compound may be administered in separate pharmaceuticalcompositions or as part of the same pharmaceutical composition. Suitabledrugs are described in U.S. application Ser. No. 12/820,325, thecomplete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

As used herein, “a” or “an” means one or more.

Additional objects, advantages and novel features of the presentinvention will become apparent to those skilled in the art byconsideration of the following non-limiting examples.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Danazol's Effects on Angiogenesis (Comparative)

A. HUVEC Cell Proliferation

Protocol:

Primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and EGM-2 growthmedium were obtained from Cambrex (Walkersville, Md.). The cells werepassaged in medium supplemented with 2% fetal calf serum (FCS) in tissueculture flasks at 37° C. and 5% CO₂. Subculturing was performed usingtrypsin when 60-80% confluence was obtained as specified by thesupplier.

Cryopreserved ampoules of passage 2 HUVECs were thawed and plated in 96well tissue culture plates at 5,000 cells/cm². A 50 mM stock solution ofdanazol was prepared in ethanol and the FCS in the medium was increasedto 5% to keep danazol in solution. The cells were treated with mediumcontaining final concentrations of danazol ranging from 0.1 to 100 μM intriplicates. 24, 48, and 72 hour incubations were performed and cellproliferation was determined utilizing Celltiter 96 AQ_(ueous) OneSolution Cell Proliferation assay from Promega (Madison, Wis.). Inshort, medium was aspirated from each well and the cells were washedwith 200 μl Hepes buffered saline (HBSS) from Cambrex warmed to 37° C.100 μl diluted celltiter solution (15 μl stock+85 μl EGM-2 containing0.1% FCS) were added to each well and incubated for an additional 4hours. Optical density was determined by microplate reader using a 530nm filter after blank subtraction and data presented as OD±standarddeviation. The final concentration of ethanol in the wells was less then0.2% and had no effect on cell proliferation or viability.

All data are presented as representative experiments done in triplicate.Differences between subsets were analyzed using student t-test inMicrosoft Excel. P<0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results, Observations and Discussion:

Culturing primary HUVECs in the presence of danazol decreased the ODobtained from the Promega celltiter proliferation assay in a time anddose dependent fashion (FIG. 1). The celltiter assay is based on thereduction of the assay solution by dehydrogenase enzymes to a formazandye that directly correlates to cell number.

Danazol treatment at 24 hours seemed to be effective only at very highdoses. Significant decreases (p value<0.05) in assay OD were seen at 10μM or greater concentrations of danazol. The OD detected in the nilwells was 0.414±0.06 and treatment with 10 μM danazol decreased the ODto 0.288±0.037 while 100 μM to 0.162±0.017, equating to percentinhibitions of 30% and 65% respectively.

At 48 hours, the inhibition observed was significant even at levels of 1μM. The nil reading obtained after 48 hours in culture increased to0.629±0.095 and was reduced to 0.378±0.037 by 1 μM, 0.241±0.012 by 10μM, and 0.19±0.033 by 100 μM (or percent inhibitions of 40%, 61%, and70% respectively).

After 72 hours, all danazol treatments tested exhibited significantreduction in HUVEC proliferation. The OD obtained in nil wells was1.113±0.054 and after 0.1 μM treatment fell to 0.798±0.037, 1 μM to0.484±0.022, 10 μM to 0.229±0.016, and 100 μM to 0.156±0.018(inhibitions of 28%, 57%, 80%, and 86% respectively).

Examination of the OD obtained from all 100 μM danazol doses wasconsistent at all time points indicating a complete arrest of cellproliferation at this concentration.

In summary, danazol exhibited strong inhibition of endothelial cellproliferation.

B. HUVEC Tube Formation

Protocol:

To investigate the formation of capillary-like structures by HUVECs, theAngiogenesis System Endothelial Cell Tube Formation Assay was purchasedfrom BD Biosciences (San Jose, Calif.) and used according to themanufacturer's protocol. In brief, 100,000 HUVECs were seeded ontorehydrated matrigel plugs in 96 well tissue culture plates in thepresence of 5% FCS to induce tube formation. Danazol was added to finalconcentrations of 1 μM, 10 μM, or 50 μM and LY294002 (positive control)was added at 50 μM. After 18 hours the wells were photographed using aKodak DCS Pro SLR/N digital camera (Rochester, N.Y.) mounted on aninverted microscope. Ethanol treated wells were included to determine ifthe vehicle had any effects on cell differentiation.

Results, Observations and Discussion:

To elucidate if danazol can prevent the formation of tube-likestructures by HUVEC, 96 well plates containing matrigel plugs were used.Endothelial cells when cultured in the presence of angiogenic substancesand supplied with an extracellular matrix scaffold will differentiateinto structures loosely resembling capillary vessels. HUVECs grown withdanazol exhibited fewer organized structures with thin and less definedinterconnections than controls (see FIG. 2, in which A=control, B=1 μMdanazol, C=10 μM danazol, D=50 μM danazol, and E=50 μM LY294002).Treatment with 50 μM danazol led to isolated colonies of HUVEC locatedin the plug with very few, thin connections or vessel lumen spaces. Theeffect of danazol was very similar to the positive control compoundLY294002. To ensure that the vehicle used had no effect, wells weretreated with ethanol at concentrations corresponding to the highest doseof danazol used and no effect on tube formation was observed (data notshown). These data indicate that danazol is an effective inhibitor oftube formation at 50 μM. Danazol had no effect on tube formation at 1 μMor 10 μM.

C. HUVEC Invasion

Protocol:

BioCoat Matrigel Invasion Chambers were purchased from BD Biosciences(San Jose, Calif.). Inserts were rehydrated at 37° C. with 500 μl HBSSfor 2 hours prior to use in humidified incubator. Trypsinized HUVECswere washed twice with warm EGM-2 containing 0.1% FCS and added to theupper chamber of the invasion insert at 100,000 cells in a total volumeof 250 μl. Danazol and control compounds were added to the upperreservoir at final concentrations of 10 μM and 100 μM. 750 μl EGM-2supplemented with 5% FCS was added to the bottom chamber to initiateinvasion and the plates were incubated for 24 hours. Non-invasive cellswere removed from the upper chamber with moistened cotton swabs and thenthe inserts were washed twice with HBSS. The inserts were then submergedin 10 μM calcein AM prepared in HBSS and incubated for 4 hours.Fluorescence was determined in a microplate reader at 485 nm excitationand 595 nm emission. LY294002 and the structurally similar but inactivecompound LY303511 served as positive and negative controls respectivelyfor this experiment.

Results:

The results are presented in FIG. 3. All data is presented asrepresentative experiment done in triplicate. Differences betweensubsets were analyzed using student t-test in Microsoft Excel. P<0.05was considered statistically significant.

Porous, matrigel coated inserts were used to determine if danazol caninterfere with the invasion or migration of endothelial cells (FIG. 3).In the system used for the study, a significant increase in cells wasdetected by fluorescent dye after the addition of FCS to the chamberopposite the endothelial cells (5674 FU±77 to 7143±516). Danazol atconcentrations of 10 μM and 100 μM had no effect, while LY294002 showedalmost complete attenuation of cell invasion (5814±153). These dataindicate that factors present in the FCS induce the production by HUVECsof proteases that digest extracellular matrix, followed by migrationalong a chemotactic gradient. Danazol has no apparent inhibitory effecton invasion and migration of HUVECs in this model.

D. HUVEC Migration

Protocol:

Assays were performed to determine the effect of danazol on themigration of HUVECs in a scratch migration assay. Passage 8 HUVECs, lotnumber 8750 (obtained from Lonza), were plated in 6-well plates (ICSBioExpress) in endothelial growth medium-2 (EGM-2) complete medium(obtained from Lonza). The plates were cultured in a 37° C. incubatorwith 5% CO₂ for 48-72 hours to achieve confluent monolayers. Themonolayers were then “scratched” with a 1000 μl pipet tip and washed twotimes with warm EGM-2 medium. The final wash medium was aspirated andreplaced with fresh EGM-2 medium or fresh EGM-2 medium containing arange of concentrations of danazol concentrations (Sigma, #D8399).Photographs of the damaged monolayers were taken and the plates wereincubated in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂ for another 24 hours. Thewells were photographed again. The gaps were measured in each photographusing Adobe Photoshop software, and gap measurements are presented asthe number of pixels in the gap.

Results:

The results of three separate experiments are presented in Table 1below. As can be seen from Table 1, danazol, at 50 μM, 75 μM and 100 μM,was found to significantly inhibit HUVEC migration in this assay. TheEGM-2 culture medium used in this assay contains a cocktail of growthfactors as compared to the FCS used in the Matrigel model described insection C above. This difference in the growth factors may account forthe difference in the results obtained using the two models.

TABLE 1 Danazol Mean Mean % Compound(s) Concentration pixels InhibitionSTD SEM Diluent control 1264.00 (ethanol) Danazol 10 μM 1004.00 21.1414.87 8.59 Danazol 25 μM 1184.00 5.50 8.80 5.08 Danazol 50 μM 895.3327.64 17.63 10.18 Danazol 75 μM 317.33 74.62 6.80 3.93 Danazol 100 μM 178.67 85.90 0.92 0.53

Example 2 Danazol Effect on Vascular Permeability of HUVEC Monolayers

Protocol:

Assays were performed to determine the effect of danazol on permeabilityof HUVEC monolayers. Passage 5-10 HUVECs, lot number 7016 (obtained fromLonza), were seeded onto 1-micron-pore-size inserts located in the wellsof a 24-well plate (Greiner BioOne 24-well Thincert cell cultureinserts, #662610, or ISC BioExpress, #T-3300-15) using endothelialgrowth medium-2 (EGM-2) (obtained from Lonza). The plates were culturedin a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂ for 48-72 hours to achieve confluenceand develop tight monolayers. The medium was then removed and replacedwith fresh medium or fresh medium containing a range of danazolconcentrations (Sigma, #D8399). Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα; PierceBiotechnology, #RTNFAI) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β; Sigma, #1-9401) wereadded to appropriate wells at final concentrations of 10 ng/ml each.TNFα and IL-1β induce permeability; they can cause up to a ten-foldincrease in permeability. Finally, streptavidin conjugated tohorseradish peroxidase (HRP) (Pierce Biotechnology, #N100, 1.25 mg/ml)was added to each well at a final dilution of 1:250. HRP is a largemolecule having a molecular weight of about 44,000. Final volumes were300 μl in the upper chambers and 700 μl in the bottom chambers of eachwell. The plates were incubated for an additional 24 hours in the 37° C.incubator with 5% CO₂. After this incubation, the inserts were removedand discarded. Visual examination of the cells on the inserts indicatedthat all of the monolayers were still intact.

To evaluate HRP flow-through, 15 μl of the resulting solutions in thebottom chambers were transferred to 96-well ELISA plates (each reactionperformed in triplicate). Next, 100 μl of tetramethylbenzidine (TMB)solution (Pierce) were added to each well, and the color developed for 5minutes at room temperature. Color development was stopped by adding 100μl of 0.18 N acidic solution. OD was determined for each well using amicroplate reader set at 450 nm minus 530 nm. The percent inhibition ofpermeability was calculated versus controls, and the means for threeseparate experiments are presented in Table 2.

As can be seen from Table 2, danazol at concentrations of 25.0 μM orhigher actually increased vascular permeability. A concentration of 10.0μM had little or no effect on vascular permeability. Danazol atconcentrations from 0.1 μM to 5.0 μM, with 0.1 μM to 0.5 μM beingoptimal, decreased vascular permeability. The dose-response curve isvery interesting as there is a second peak of inhibition atconcentrations from 0.001 μM (or perhaps even lower) to 0.005 μM. Thus,danazol exhibits a very surprising and unexpected dose response curvefor vascular permeability.

As shown in Example 1, a concentration of 50 μM to 100 μM would berequired to obtain inhibition of HUVEC proliferation, migration and tubeformation after 18-24 hours of incubation with danazol. As shown in thisExample 2, these optimal concentrations for inhibiting angiogenesiswould dramatically increase vascular permeability after 24 hours (seeTable 2). Conversely, optimal concentrations for use to inhibit vascularpermeability (0.1 μM to 0.5 μM) have insignificant effects onangiogenesis at 24 hours.

TABLE 2 Danazol Mean % Compound(s) Concentration Inhibition STD SEMDanazol 0.001 μM  19.35 5.39 3.11 Danazol 0.005 μM  16.37 8.04 4.64Danazol 0.01 μM −2.74 14.56 8.40 Danazol 0.05 μM 7.67 8.83 5.10 Danazol 0.1 μM 35.59 23.08 11.54 Danazol  0.5 μM 30.95 12.01 6.01 Danazol  1.0μM 21.20 31.13 13.92 Danazol  5.0 μM 14.63 15.30 7.65 Danazol 10.0 μM14.29 36.85 13.03 Danazol 25.0 μM −1.06 22.60 11.30 Danazol 50.0 μM−377.36 384.50 171.95 TNFα + IL-1β +  0.1 μM 31.30 25.26 12.63 DanazolTNFα + IL-1β +  1.0 μM 29.22 16.17 7.23 Danazol TNFα + IL-1β + 10.0 μM8.47 20.45 9.14 Danazol TNFα + IL-1β + 25.0 μM −39.93 15.53 7.76 DanazolTNFα + IL-1β + 50.0 μM −117.16 29.20 14.60 Danazol

Example 3 Danazol Effect on Vascular Permeability

Passage 9 human retinal endothelial cells (ACBRI 181, Applied CellBiology Research Institute, Kirkland, Wash.) were passaged in EGM-2medium (Lonza, Walkersville, Md.) until 80% confluence was obtained. Thecells were then released from the passage flask using Trypsin-EDTA, andthe cells in the resulting suspension were counted to determine bothviability and cell numbers. Viability of the cell suspension was greaterthan 90% in this experiment.

The cells were then seeded onto inserts (1 micron pore size) located inthe wells of a 24-well plate (Greiner BioOne 24-well Thincert cellculture inserts, #662610) in 300 μl EGM-2 complete medium (obtained fromLonza). Then, 700 μl EGM-2 was placed in the bottom chamber, and theplates were cultured in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂ for 48 hours toachieve confluent monolayers. Transendothelial electrical resistance(TER) measurements were taken using an STX 100 electrode attached toEVOM² voltohmmeter (both from World Precision Instruments) for allinserts to confirm establishment of a semi-permeable barrier. To performthe measurements, one probe was placed in each well with one electrodein the upper chamber and one in the lower chamber.

Then, the cells were treated in duplicate as follows. EGM-2 medium wascarefully decanted from the inserts and replaced with IMDM mediumcontaining 0.5% fetal bovine serum and EGM-2 supplements, except forVEGF and hydrocortisone (all from Lonza). In some wells, the IMDM mediumcontained danazol (Sigma, #D8399) in a ten-fold serial dilution. Theplates were incubated in a 37° C. incubator at 5% CO₂ for four hoursbefore 30 μl of a solution containing 4% fluorescent-labelled humanserum albumin was added to the upper chamber of each well. The plateswere incubated in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂ for an additional 18hours.

After this incubation, the inserts were removed and discarded, and 200μl of the medium from the bottom chamber was transferred to 96-wellblack fluoro-plates (Falcon) in triplicate. The fluorescence of eachwell was then measured at an excitation wavelength of 340 nm and anemission wavelength of 470 nm. Mean fluorescence units (FU) for eachinsert were then calculated, and duplicate readings were averaged. Theresults are presented in Table 3.

TABLE 3 Danazol Concentration Mean FU STD None 767.13 8.38 0.01 μM688.50 14.94  0.1 μM 743.90 8.95  1.0 μM 783.39 14.59 10.0 μM 768.9918.85

As can be seen, the lowest concentration of danazol (0.01 μM) gave thegreatest inhibition (about 10%). Control wells run with no cells gaveover 4000 FU in the lower chamber, showing that the retinal endothelialmonolayers were selectively permeable.

Example 4 Effect of Danazol on TER of Three Different Endothelial CellMonolayers

Assays were performed to determine the effect of danazol ontransendothelial electrical resistance (TER) of human retinalendothelial cells (ACBRI 181, Applied Cell Biology Research Institute,Kirkland, Wash.). To do so, 150,000 passage 14 human retinal endothelialcells were seeded onto inserts (1 micron pore size) located in the wellsof a 24-well plate (Greiner BioOne 24-well Thincert cell cultureinserts, #662610) in 300 μl EGM-2 complete medium (obtained from Lonza).Then, the plates were cultured in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂ for 24hours. After the incubation, the culture medium was carefully decantedand replaced with either fresh EGM-2 or fresh EGM-2 containing danazolat a final concentration of 1 μM. The plates were placed back in theincubator and cultured for an additional 144 hours. Assays were alsoperformed in the same manner using passage 8 human brain endothelialcells and passage 8 human umbilical vein endothelial cells.

An initial TER measurement was taken for each insert using EVOM²voltohmmeter connected to an STX100 electrode (both from World PrecisionInstruments). Measurements were also taken at 24, 48, 72 and 144 hours.The results are presented in Tables 4, 5 and 6 below. All data arepresented as TER measurements/cm² of insert with TER of blank insertssubtracted.

TABLE 4 Human Retinal Endothelial Cells Danazol Concentration 0 Hours 24Hours 48 Hours 72 Hours 144 Hours None 32.3 96.0 144.4 148.0 219.7 1.0μM 21.7 132.3 182.3 217.7 234.8

TABLE 5 Human Brain Endothelial Cells Danazol Concentration 0 Hours 24Hours 48 Hours 72 Hours 144 Hours None 41.4 115.7 176.3 154.0 151.5 1.0μM 32.3 139.9 188.4 149.5 125.8

TABLE 6 Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells Danazol Concentration 0Hours 24 Hours 48 Hours 72 Hours 144 Hours None 82.3 217.2 276.3 226.8227.3 1.0 μM 70.2 246.0 364.1 270.7 286.4

As can be seen, danazol enhanced TER measurements (reduced ionpermeability) in the retinal and umbilical vein endothelial cellmonolayers. Danazol did not appear to have much effect on the TER of thebrain endothelial cell monolayers, except at the earliest time point.TER is a measurement of the electrical resistance across cellularmonolayers. It is an indication of barrier integrity and correlates withion permeability.

Example 5 Danazol Effect on Akt Phosphorylation

Assays were performed to determine the effect of danazol onphosphorylation of Akt in human retinal endothelial cells (ACBRI 181,Applied Cell Biology Research Institute, Kirkland, Wash.). The cellswere grown in a 25 cm² flask to near confluence in EGM-2 medium (Lonza,Walkersville, Md.) containing 2% fetal calf serum (Lonza). The cellswere then released from the passage flask using Trypsin/EDTA. The cellsin the resulting suspension were counted and seeded on a 96-well plateat 1×10⁴ cells/well in EGM-2 medium. The plate was incubated at 37° C.with 5% CO₂ for 24 hours. Then, 200 μl of either EGM-2 medium (control)or various concentrations of danazol were added, and the plates wereincubated for an additional 2 hours. After this incubation, the cellswere fixed immediately with 4% formaldehyde, refrigerated, and theextent of phosphorylation of Akt determined using the Akt CellularActivation of Signaling ELISA Kit (CASE™ Kit for AKT 5473;SABiosciences, Frederick, Md.) following the manufacturer's protocols.The CASE™ Kit for AKT S473 quantifies the amount of activated(phosphorylated) Akt protein relative to total Akt protein in parallelassays using a conventional ELISA format with colorimetric detection.The Akt phosphorylation site is serine 473 and is recognized by one ofthe antibodies used in one of the two parallel assays to provide ameasure of activated Akt protein. The other antibody used in the otherparallel assay recognizes Akt to provide a measure of total Akt protein.Both primary antibodies are detected using a horseradishperoxidase-labeled secondary antibody. Addition of the manufacturer'sDeveloping Solution for 10 minutes, followed by addition of themanufacturer's Stop Solution, produces the result which can be measuredcolorimetrically.

The results are presented in Table 7 below. As can be seen there, all ofthe concentrations of danazol caused an increase in Akt phosphorylation(activation).

TABLE 7 PERCENT INCREASE IN AKT PHOSPHORYLATION TREATMENT VERSUS CONTROLSTANDARD DEVIATION  0.5 μM danazol 73.8% 92.9%  1.0 μM danazol 66.7%11.7%  2.0 μM danazol 101.6% 9.1%  5.0 μM danazol 40.5% 17.7% 10.0 μMdanazol 115.3% 112.9% 20.0 μM danazol 161.3% 128.7% 50.0 μM danazol98.6% 61.2%

It is believed that these results provide a possible explanation for thevascular permeability dose response curve obtained in Example 2. Asshown in Example 2, low doses of danazol reduced permeability, whilehigh doses increased permeability. It is believed that a certain levelof phosphorylation of Akt at 5473 reduces permeability (the 0.5-5.0 μMconcentrations in this experiment), while hyperphosphorylation of Akt atS473 causes increased permeability (the 10-50 μM concentrations in thisexperiment).

Example 6 Effect of Danazol and Steroid Receptor Antagonists on TER ofRetinal Endothelial Cell Monolayers

Assays were performed to determine the effect of danazol and steroidreceptor antagonists on transendothelial electrical resistance (TER) ofhuman retinal endothelial cells (ACBRI 181, Applied Cell BiologyResearch Institute, Kirkland, Wash.). To do so, Greiner tissue culturewell inserts (Greiner BioOne 24-well Thincert cell culture inserts,#662610) were coated with 5 μg/cm² fibronectin (Sigma). Then, passage 12human retinal endothelial cells were seeded into the upper chamber ofthe wells at 120,000 cells per insert in a volume of 300 μl of EGM-2medium (Lonza). The volume for the lower chamber was 700 μl of EGM-2medium (Lonza). The plates were cultured in a 37° C. incubator with 5%CO₂ for 48 hours to establish intact monolayers. At the end of theincubation, TER measurements were taken using an STX 2 probe attached toEVOM² voltohmmeter (both from World Precision Instruments) for allinserts to confirm integrity of the endothelial barrier. All insertsexhibited elevated resistance as compared to inserts without cells.

Then, the culture medium was carefully decanted and replaced with freshEGM-2, with and without several additives. The additives were danazol,hydroxyflutamide (androgen receptor antagonist), fluvestrant (estrogenantagonist) and PI3 kinase inhibitor LY 294002 (control). Stocksolutions of all additives, except danazol, were made at 10 mM in DMSO.The danazol stock solution was 10 mM in ethanol. Working 200 μMdilutions of all additives were made in same solvents. Then, 200 nMdilutions of each additive, and of equivalent dilutions of ethanol andDMSO (controls), were made in EGM-2 medium, and danazol and each of theother additives or medium (control) were added to the wells in thecombinations and final concentrations shown in the table below. Theplates were then placed back into the incubator, and TER measurementswere taken as described above for each insert at 30 minutes, 60 minutes,120 minutes and 24 hours. TER was calculated by subtracting thebackground measurement (empty insert) from the reading of an insert anddividing by the surface area of the insert (0.33 cm²). The results arepresented in Table 8 below.

TABLE 8 TER at 30 TER at 60 TER at 120 TER at 24 Treatment minutesminutes minutes Hours None 216.22 249.25 234.23 312.31 0.1 μM Danazol255.26 267.27 249.35 366.37 0.1 μM 177.18 186.19 201.20 297.30Hydroxyflutamide 0.1 μM 228.23 270.27 258.26 336.34 Fluvestrant 0.1 μM237.24 276.28 240.24 363.36 Hydroxyflutamide followed by 0.1 μM Danazol0.1 μM 195.20 309.31 255.26 393.39 Fluvestrant followed by 0.1 μMDanazol 10.0 μM 297.30 354.35 276.28 345.35 LY294002 10.0 μM 243.24342.34 270.27 336.34 LY294002 followed by 0.1 μM Danazol

As can be seen from Table 8, danazol and fluvestrant increased the TERmeasurements (reduced permeability), while hydroxyflutamide reduced thereadings (increased permeability), compared to the control (notreatment). Danazol prevented the reduction caused by hydroxyflutamide.This could be evidence that danazol is occupying the androgen receptorin these cells. Danazol and fluvestrant showed additive results at sometime points.

Example 7 Effect of Danazol on Actin Stress Fiber Formation

The IEJs of the paracellular pathway include AJs and TJs. The actincytoskeleton is bound to each junction and control the integrity of thejunctions through actin remodeling. Reorganization of the actinfilaments into stress fibers results in application of mechanical forcesto the junctions that pull them apart, cause cellular contraction andchanges in morphology. The process of actin polymerization is verydynamic, which allows for the rapid reorganization of actin structuresand the transition from the quiescent phenotype, characterized by thickcortical actin ring and the absence of stress fibers, to the activatedcell phenotype with thin or no cortical actin and abundant stressfibers. The actin cytoskeleton appears also to be involved intranscytosis, perhaps by regulating the movement of caveolae.

Human retinal endothelial cells (ACBRI 181, Applied Cell BiologyResearch Institute, Kirkland, Wash.) were seeded into Falcon Optiluxassay plates (BD Biosciences) at 1000 cells per well in a total volumeof 200 μl of EGM-2 medium (Lonza). The plates were cultured in a 37° C.incubator with 5% CO₂ for 48 hours. Then, the medium was removed andreplaced with 200 μl of IMDM medium supplemented with 0.1% fetal bovineserum (all from Lonza), and the cells were cultured under these growthfactor and serum starved conditions for one hour to suppress actinpolymerization. Then danazol (0.1 μM or 10 μM final concentrations) orthe PI3 kinase inhibitor LY294002 (10 μM final concentration) (positivecontrol) were added. Immediately following addition of these compounds,TNFα (final concentration of 50 ng/ml) was added. After incubation for30 minutes in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂, the medium was aspirated,and the cells were fixed with 3.6% formaldehyde in phosphate bufferedsaline (PBS) for ten minutes at room temperature. All wells were thenwashed two times with 100 μl PBS. The cells were permeabilized using a0.1% Triton X-100 in PBS for 5 minutes. All wells were then washed twotimes with 100 μl PBS, and 50 μl of a 1:40 dilution ofrhodamine-phalloidin (Invitrogen) in PBS was added to the cells to stainfor F-actin and left on the cells for 20 minutes at room temperature.All wells were then washed two times with 100 μl PBS. Then 100 μl PBSwas added to each well and the cells were observed and photographedusing an inverted microscope with rhodamine filters (ex530/em590).

The results showed that danazol affected the ability of stress fibers todevelop. When treated with danazol, the cells exhibited differentstaining patterns, dependent on the dosage. At the lower danazol dose(0.1 μM), diffuse staining throughout the cytoplasm was observed,possibly indicative of a stabilizing event or of a resting phenotype. Atthe higher danazol dose (10.0 μM), stress fibers with multiple focalpoints were detected. These findings correlate with previous results(see previous examples) that lower danazol doses inhibit permeabilityand higher danazol doses increase permeability. TNFα stimulated thecells and led to strong stress fiber development with intensely stainingfocal points. Danazol and LY294002 decreased the number of cellsexhibiting stress fiber development with TNFα.

Example 8 Effect of Danazol on Actin Stress Fiber Formation

Human retinal endothelial cells (ACBRI 181, Applied Cell BiologyResearch Institute, Kirkland, Wash.) were seeded into Falcon Optiluxassay plates (BD Biosciences) coated with 1 μg/cm² fibronectin at 3000cells per well in a total volume of 200 μl of EGM-2 medium (Lonza). Theplates were cultured in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂ for 48 hours.Then, the medium was removed and replaced with 200 μl of Ultraculturemedium supplemented with 2.0% fetal bovine serum (all from Lonza), andthe cells were cultured under these growth factor and serum starvedconditions overnight to suppress actin polymerization. Then, the mediumwas removed and replaced with fresh Ultraculture medium supplementedwith 2.0% fetal bovine serum containing danazol (0.1 μM, 1 μM or 10 μM)or the PI3 kinase inhibitor LY294002 (10 μM) (positive control). Afterincubation with these compounds for 30 minutes in a 37° C. incubatorwith 5% CO₂, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) (finalconcentration of 25 ng/ml) was added. After incubation for an additional30 minutes in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂, the medium was aspirated,and the cells were fixed using 3.6% formaldehyde in phosphate bufferedsaline (PBS) for ten minutes at room temperature. All wells were thenwashed two times with 100 μl PBS. The cells were permeabilized using a0.1% Triton X-100 in PBS for 5 minutes. All wells were then washed twotimes with 100 μl PBS, and 50 μl of a 1:40 dilution ofrhodamine-phalloidin (Invitrogen) in PBS was added to the cells to stainfor F-actin and left on the cells for 20 minutes at room temperature.All wells were then washed two times with 100 μl PBS. To counter-stainfor nuclei, 100 μl of a 3 μM DAPI (4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole,dilactate (Invitrogen)) solution was added to each well. After 5minutes, the cells were washed two times with 100 μl PBS. Then 100 μlPBS was added to each well and the cells were observed and photographedusing an inverted microscope using rhodamine (ex530/em590) and DAPI(ex350/em460) filters.

The results showed that danazol affected the ability of stress fibers todevelop. When treated with danazol, the cells exhibited different stressfiber formation patterns, dependent on the dosage applied. At the lowestdanazol dose (0.1 μM), diffuse F-actin staining throughout the cytoplasmwas observed. At 1.0 μM danazol, the diffuse staining persisted, butstress fibers and focal points around the perimeter of most cells werevisible. At the highest danazol dose (10.0 μM), there was no longer anydiffuse staining, and stress fiber development and focal points wereseen. The staining seen with the lower doses of danazol exhibited aperinuclear staining pattern, indicating microtubule stabilizationsimilar to that observed with paclitaxel (a Taxol compound known tostabilize and polymerize microtubules). With VEGF, there was strongstress fiber development. Danazol changed the VEGF pattern in adose-dependent manner: (i) the lowest 0.1 μM danazol dose made thestress fibers less pronounced and some diffuse staining appeared; (ii)the 1.0 μM dose showed fewer thick stress fibers, but focal points wereseen on contact surfaces; and (iii) the highest 10.0 μM danazol doseshowed strong stress fiber development with focal points. LY294002prevented the strong stress fiber development seen with VEGF andexhibited diffuse staining.

Example 9 Effect of Danazol on Vascular Endothelial Cadherin(VE-Cadherin) Phosphorylation

Passage 12 human retinal endothelial cells (ACBRI 181, Applied CellBiology Research Institute, Kirkland, Wash.) were grown to confluence onfibronectin-coated (1 μg/cm²) 10 cm² tissue culture plates using EGM-2culture medium (Lonza) in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂. When completeconfluence was achieved, the medium was replaced with Ultraculturemedium supplemented with 0.5% fetal bovine serum and L-glutamine (allfrom Lonza), and the cells were cultured under these growth factor andserum starved conditions for 24 hours. Then, the medium was removed andreplaced with fresh Ultraculture medium supplemented with 0.5% fetalbovine serum and L-glutamine containing danazol (0.1 μM, 1 μM or 10 μM)or ethanol (vehicle control). After incubation for 15 minutes in a 37°C. incubator with 5% CO₂, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)(final concentration of 50 ng/ml) was added, and the plates incubatedfor an additional 15 minutes in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂.

The plates were immediately treated to lyse the cells as follows. PBSand the lysis buffer (PBS containing 1% Triton X-100 supplemented withphosphatase inhibitor solutions 1 and 2 (Sigma), protease inhibitor(Sigma) and sodium orthovanadate at a final concentration of 2 mM) werecooled to 4° C. The cells were washed two times with 5 ml of the icecold PBS and then lysed in 500 μl of the ice cold lysis buffer. Theresulting protein extracts were transferred to 1.7 ml microcentrifugetubes, and cell debris was removed by spinning at 4° C. at 10,000 rpmfor 10 minutes. Then, 450 μl of the cleared solution was transferred totubes containing 25 μl of Protein Dynabeads (Invitrogen) coated with 10μl C19 anti-VE cadherin polyclonal antibody (Santa Cruz Biotechnology)(coating performed following manufacturer's protocol). The extracts andbeads were then incubated overnight at 4° C. on an orbital shaker tocapture VE cadherin from the extracts. The beads were then washed fourtimes with ice cold lysis buffer. To release the protein from the beads,they were heated for 10 minutes at 75° C. in SDS loading dye containing20% reducing dye (Invitrogen).

The released proteins were separated in 4-20% polyacrylamide gels(Invitrogen) at 120 volts for 1 hour. To determine phosphorylation andtotal protein in the gels, Pro-Q diamond (Invitrogen) and SYPRO ruby(Invitrogen) protein staining were sequentially performed following themanufacturer's protocol. The gels were photographed and densitometryperformed using a Kodak imaging station. The results are presented inTable 9 below.

TABLE 9 VE-Cadherin 0.1 μM danazol Nil (ethanol 0.1 μM followed bycontrol) danazol VEGF VEGF Relative intensity - 1.00 1.51 1.89 1.38 ProQresults (phosphorylated protein) Relative intensity - 1.00 0.89 0.840.83 SYPRO results (total protein) Ratio 0.215 0.365 0.481 0.358phosphorylated:total (1.70 fold (2.24 fold (1.66 fold protein increase)increase) increase)

As can be seen, danazol caused an increase in VE-cadherinphosphorylation. VEGF caused an even greater increase in VE-cadherinphosphorylation (hyperphosphorylation), which was reversed by danazol.VE-cadherin is a component of AJs, and phosphorylation of VE-cadherincan have a variety of effects depending on the residue. In general,tyrosine phosphorylation of VE-cadherin leads to AJ disassembly andincreased permeability. Serine 665 phosphorylation, however, causes arapid but reversible internalization of VE-cadherin associated withreduced barrier function. A feedback loop appears to exist in whichinternalized VE-cadherin drives an increase in cytoplasmic p120, ascaffolding protein that complexes to AJs. This up-regulation induces adecrease in active RhoA in association with an increase in thebarrier-stabilizing GTPases like Rac1, Rap-1, and Cdc42. It is believedthat the increase in VE-cadherin phosphorylation observed in thisexperiment following low dose danazol treatment leads to the activationof barrier stabilizing GTPases. In addition, danazol may prevent thedestabilizing phosphorylation events induced by VEGF.

Example 10 Effect of Danazol and Steroid Receptor Antagonists on TER ofRetinal Endothelial Cell Monolayers

Assays were performed to determine the effect of danazol and steroidreceptor antagonists on transendothelial electrical resistance (TER) ofhuman retinal endothelial cells (ACBRI 181, Applied Cell BiologyResearch Institute, Kirkland, Wash.). To do so, Greiner tissue culturewell inserts (Greiner BioOne 24-well Thincert cell culture inserts,#662610) were coated with 5 μg/cm² fibronectin. Then, passage 13 humanretinal endothelial cells were seeded into the upper chamber of thewells at 120,000 cells per insert in a volume of 300 μl of EGM-2 medium(Lonza). The volume for the lower chamber was 700 μl of EGM-2 medium(Lonza). The plates were cultured in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂ for48 hours to establish intact monolayers. At the end of the incubation,TER measurements were taken using an STX 2 probe attached to EVOM²voltohmmeter (both from World Precision Instruments) for all inserts toconfirm integrity of the endothelial barrier. All inserts exhibitedelevated resistance as compared to inserts without cells.

Then, the culture medium was carefully decanted and replaced with freshEGM-2, with and without several additives. The additives were danazol,hydroxyflutamide (androgen receptor antagonist), fluvestrant (estrogenantagonist), testosterone, estradiol and PI3 kinase inhibitor LY 294002(control). Stock solutions of all additives, except danazol, were madeat 10 mM in DMSO. The danazol stock solution was 10 mM in ethanol.Working 200 μM dilutions of all additives were made in same solvents.Then, 200 nM dilutions of each additive, and of equivalent dilutions ofethanol and DMSO (controls), were made in EGM-2 medium, and danazol andeach of the other additives or medium (control) were added to the wellsin the combinations and final concentrations shown in the table below.The plates were then placed back into the incubator, and TERmeasurements were taken as described above for each insert at 5 minutes,30 minutes, 60 minutes and 24 hours. TER was calculated by subtractingthe background measurement (empty insert) from the reading of an insertand dividing by the surface area of the insert (0.33 cm²). The resultsare presented in Table 10 below.

As can be seen from Table 10, danazol increased the TER measurements,hydroxyflutamide reduced the readings, testosterone reduced the readingsvery slightly, and fluvestrant had essentially no effect, compared tothe control (no treatment). Danazol prevented the reduction caused byhydroxyflutamide and the very slight reduction seen with testosterone.As with the results in Example 6, this could be evidence that danazol isoccupying the androgen receptor in these cells.

TABLE 10 TER at 5 TER at 30 TER at 60 TER at 24 Treatment minutesminutes minutes Hours None 250.30 262.31 251.00 287.09 0.1 μM Danazol280.03 311.56 313.06 348.35 0.1 μM 190.44 207.46 215.97 267.27Hydroxyflutamide 0.1 μM 230.48 275.53 262.01 312.31 Hydroxyflutamidefollowed by 0.1 μM Danazol 0.1 μM 223.47 251.50 243.99 279.28Fluvestrant 0.1 μM 219.47 279.53 273.02 343.34 Fluvestrant followed by0.1 μM Danazol 10 nM 257.51 240.49 225.98 267.27 Testosterone 100 nM273.52 287.54 259.01 283.28 Testosterone followed by 0.1 μM Danazol 10nM Estradiol 246.50 245.50 250.00 328.33 10 nM Estradiol 276.53 307.56282.03 363.36 followed by 0.1 μM Danazol

Example 11 Effect of Danazol on Actin Stress Fiber Formation

Passage 6 human renal glomerular microvascular endothelial cells (ACBRI128, Cell Systems Corporation (exclusive distributor for Applied CellBiology Research Institute), Kirkland, Wash.) and passage 12 humanretinal endothelial cells (ACBRI 181, Cell Systems Corporation(exclusive distributor for Applied Cell Biology Research Institute),Kirkland, Wash.) were seeded into 16-chamber glass slides coated with 5μg/cm² fibronectin at 2000 cells per well in a total volume of 200 μl ofEGM-2 medium (Lonza). The plates were cultured in a 37° C. incubatorwith 5% CO₂ for 48 hours with daily medium changes. Then, the testcompounds (danazol, TNFα and S1P), diluted in Hanks Balanced SaltSolution (HBSS; Lonza), were added to give the following finalconcentrations: danazol (1 μM) (Sigma), TNFα (1 ng/ml) (Sigma), and S1P(1 μM) (Sigma). The slides were incubated with the test compounds for 15minutes, 30 minutes or 24 hours in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂. Afterthis incubation, the medium was aspirated, and the cells were fixedusing 3.6% formaldehyde in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) for tenminutes at room temperature. All wells were then washed two times with100 μl PBS. The cells were permeabilized using a 0.1% Triton X-100 inPBS for 5 minutes. All wells were then washed two times with 100 μl PBS,and 50 μl of a 1:40 dilution of rhodamine-phalloidin (Invitrogen) in PBSwas added to the cells to stain for F-actin and left on the cells for 20minutes at room temperature. All wells were then washed two times with100 μl PBS. Then 100 μl PBS was added to each well and the cells wereobserved and photographed using an inverted microscope using a rhodamine(ex530/em590) filter.

The results showed that danazol affected the ability of stress fibers todevelop in the renal glomerular microvascular endothelial cells. Whentreated with danazol alone, the cells exhibited perinuclear staining at15 minutes, diffuse staining throughout the cells with ruffled edges onmany of the cells at 3 hours, and staining similar to untreated controlsat 24 hours. With TNFα alone, stress fibers were seen at all times, withthe number of cells exhibiting stress fibers and the thickness of thefibers increasing with time. Danazol decreased the stress fiberformation and the thickness of the fibers at all times, and corticalactin rings and ruffled edges were visible beginning at 3 hours. Cellstreated with S1P alone showed actin cortical rings, with developmentbeginning at 15 minutes and strongest at 3 hours. The cells werereturning to morphology similar to untreated controls at 24 hours.Danazol seemed to enhance the cortical rings. Also, diffuse staining wasobserved, especially at 15 minutes and 24 hours.

For the retinal endothelial cells treated with danazol alone, the cellsexhibited perinuclear staining at 15 minutes, diffuse stainingthroughout the cells with ruffled edges on many of the cells at 3 hours,and staining similar to untreated controls at 24 hours. With TNFα alone,stress fibers were seen at all times, with the number of cellsexhibiting stress fibers and the thickness of the fibers increasing from15 minutes to 3 hours and being reduced after 24 hours of incubation.Danazol decreased the stress fiber formation and/or the thickness of thefibers at all times. Diffuse staining was observed at 15 minutes and 24hours, and cortical actin rings were visible at 3 hours. Cells treatedwith SIP alone showed actin cortical rings, with development beginningat 15 minutes and strongest at 3 hours. The cells were returning tomorphology similar to untreated controls at 24 hours. Danazol seemed toenhance the cortical rings at 3 hours. Also, diffuse staining wasobserved, especially at 15 minutes and 24 hours.

S1P (sphingosine-1 phosphate) plays a very important function in theformation and maintenance of vascular endothelium. S1P is a constitutivesignaling input that facilitates the organization and barrier functionof the vascular endothelium through its effects on the actincytoskeletion. In particular, S1P is involved in the formation ofcortical actin fibers and organization of the adherens junctions.Depletion of S1P leads to vascular leak and edema, and S1P can reverseendothelial dysfunction and restore barrier function.

In this experiment, danazol exhibited an ability to strengthen theprotective effects of S1P in both retinal and glomerular endothelialcells. Danazol also reversed the formation of stress fibers induced byTNFα in both of these types of endothelial cells. Diffuse perinuclearstaining is seen in cells treated with danazol alone.

Example 12 Effect of Danazol on ECIS

Assays were performed to determine the effect of danazol ontransendothelial electrical resistance (TER) of human renal glomerularmicrovascular endothelial cells (ACBRI 128, Cell Systems Corporation(exclusive distributor for Applied Cell Biology Research Institute),Kirkland, Wash.) or human retinal endothelial cells (ACBRI 181, CellSystems Corporation (exclusive distributor for Applied Cell BiologyResearch Institute), Kirkland, Wash.). Electrical resistance wasmeasured using the electric cell-substrate impedance sensing (ECIS)system (ECISZθ, obtained from Applied Biophysics) with 8-well multipleelectrode plates (8W10E). Each well of the plates was coated with 5μg/cm² fibronectin in HBSS by adding the fibronectin in a volume of 100μl per well and incubating the plates for 30 minutes in a 37° C.incubator with 5% CO₂. The fibronectin solution was removed, and 400 μlof EGM-2 culture medium (Lonza) was added to each well. The plates wereconnected to the ECISZθ system and were electrically stabilized. TheEGM-2 medium was aspirated and replaced with 200 μl of EGM-2 culturemedium containing 100,000 cells per well. The plates were reconnected tothe ECISZθ system and incubated for 24 hours in a 37° C. incubator with5% CO₂. The EGM-2 medium was aspirated and replaced with 400 μl of freshEGM-2 culture medium per well. The plates were reconnected to the ECISZθsystem and incubated for 6 hours in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂.Concentrated solutions of the test compounds in HBSS were prepared andplaced in the incubator to equilibrate. The test compounds were thenadded to appropriate wells at the following final concentrations:danazol (1 μM) (Sigma) and S1P (1 μM) (Sigma). ECIS (resistance) wasmonitored for 90 hours.

In the retinal endothelial cells, 1.0 μM danazol alone showed anincrease of ECIS as compared to untreated cells starting about 1.5-2.0hours after treatment and persisting for 5 hours. S1P alone showed anincrease of ECIS as compared to untreated cells which started within thefirst 15 minutes after treatment and persisted for about 3 hours.Danazol and S1P in combination increased the ECIS as compared to S1Palone and untreated cells, and this increased ECIS persisted for about90 hours. Thus, danazol exhibited an ability to enhance the earlyeffects of S1P and to maintain a higher resistance throughout theexperiment when S1P was present.

Glomerular endothelial cells exhibited a different pattern. Danazolalone had no effect on ECIS until about 30 hours after treatment.Danazol alone increased ECIS compared to untreated cells from about 30to about 90 hours, with the greatest increase occurring between about60-90 hours. S1P alone also had no effect on ECIS until about 30 hoursafter treatment. S1P alone increased ECIS compared to untreated cellsfrom about 30 to about 60 hours. The combination of danazol and S1P hadno effect on ECIS until about 30 hours after treatment. This combinationincreased ECIS compared to untreated cells, S1P alone and danazol alone.In particular, the combination increased ECIS compared to untreatedcells from about 30 to about 70 hours, increased ECIS compared to S1Palone from about 30 to 75 hours, and increased ECIS compared to danazolalone from about 30 to about 50 hours.

Example 13 Effect of Danazol on ECIS

Assays were performed to determine the effect of danazol ontransendothelial electrical resistance (TER) of human renal glomerularmicrovascular endothelial cells (ACBRI 128, Cell Systems Corporation(exclusive distributor for Applied Cell Biology Research Institute),Kirkland, Wash.). Electrical resistance was measured using the electriccell-substrate impedance sensing (ECIS) system (ECISZθ, obtained fromApplied Biophysics) with 8-well multiple electrode plates (8W10E). Eachwell of the plates was coated with 5 μg/cm² fibronectin in HBSS byadding the fibronectin in a volume of 50 μl per well and incubating theplates for 30 minutes in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂. The fibronectinsolution was removed, and 200 μl of EGM-2 culture medium (Lonza) wasadded to each well. The plates were connected to the ECISZθ system andwere electrically stabilized. The EGM-2 medium was aspirated andreplaced with 200 μl of EGM-2 culture medium containing 40,000 passage 6cells per well. The plates were reconnected to the ECISZθ system andincubated for 24 hours in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂. The EGM-2medium was aspirated and replaced with 200 μl of fresh EGM-2 culturemedium per well. The plates were reconnected to the ECISZθ system andincubated for an additional 24 hours in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂.The EGM-2 medium was aspirated and replaced with 200 μl of fresh EGM-2culture medium without dexamethasone per well. The plates werereconnected to the ECISZθ system and incubated overnight in a 37° C.incubator with 5% CO₂. Finally, the EGM-2 medium was aspirated andreplaced with 200 μl of fresh EGM-2 culture medium without dexamethasoneper well. The plates were reconnected to the ECISZθ system and incubated2 hours in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂. Concentrated solutions of thetest compounds in HBSS were prepared and placed in the incubator toequilibrate. The test compounds were then added to appropriate wells atthe following final concentrations: danazol (1 μM) (Sigma) anddexamethasone (1 μM) (Sigma). ECIS (resistance) was monitored for 90hours.

Danazol alone increased ECIS compared to untreated cells beginning atabout 3 hours and persisting for about 90 hours. The increase wasgreatest from about 12 to about 15 hours. When compared todexamethasone, danazol exhibited a similar pattern, but the enhancementof ECIS (TER) was not as great.

Example 14 Effect of Danazol on RhoA

Remodeling of the endothelial cell cytoskeleton is central to manyfunctions of the endothelium. The Rho family of small GTP-bindingproteins have been identified as key regulators of F-actin cytoskeletaldynamics. The Rho family consists of three isoforms, RhoA, RhoB andRhoC. The activation of RhoA activity leads to prominent stress fiberformation in endothelial cells. Stimulation of endothelial cells withthrombin increases Rho GTP and myosin phosphorylation, consistent withincreased cell contractility. Inhibition of RhoA blocks this responseand the loss of barrier function, demonstrating a critical role for Rhoin vascular permeability.

This experiment was performed using a commercially-available Rhoactivation assay (GLISA) purchased from Cytoskeleton, Denver, Colo.,following the manufacturer's protocol. Briefly, passage 8 or 12 humanretinal endothelial cells (ACBRI 181, Applied Cell Biology ResearchInstitute, Kirkland, Wash.) were cultured on fibronectin-coated (1μg/cm²) 6-well tissue culture plates using EGM-2 culture medium (Lonza)for 24 hours in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂ (30,000 cells/well intotal volume of 3 ml). Then, the medium was aspirated and replaced withUltraculture medium supplemented with 0.1% fetal bovine serum,L-glutamine, sodium pyruvate, penicillin/streptomycin and ITSS (insulin,transferrin sodium selenium) (all from Lonza) to serum starve the cellsand reduce the background level of RhoA. The cells were cultured for 24hours in a 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂. Test compounds diluted in HBSSwere placed in the incubator to equilibrate before addition to thecells. Then, 150 μl of each test compound was added to the appropriateculture wells, and the plates were incubated in the incubator for anadditional 15 minutes. Then, thrombin was added to appropriate wells.After 1 minute, the cells were washed one time with 1.5 ml phosphatebuffered saline and were then lysed with 100 μl GLISA lysis buffersupplemented with protease inhibitors. The extracts were scraped,transferred to microcentrifuge tubes and transferred to ice to preservethe active form of RhoA. All extracts were then cleared of debris byspinning at 10,000 rpms for 2 minutes at 4° C. The supernatants weretransferred to new tubes and placed back on ice. Aliquots of eachextract were removed for the GLISA assay and for protein determinations.All protein concentrations were within 10%, and the extracts were usedat the achieved concentrations (equates to 15 μg total protein perwell). The GLISA assay was performed using the reagents supplied in thekit.

The results for the passage 12 retinal endothelial cells are presentedin Table 11 below. As expected, the active Rho A levels induced bythrombin were very high. All of the test compounds inhibited thethrombin-induced activation of Rho A.

The results for the passage 8 retinal endothelial cells are presented inTable 12 below. As expected, the active Rho A levels induced by thrombinwere very high. All of the test compounds inhibited the thrombin-inducedactivation of Rho A.

TABLE 11 Percent Inhibition Percent vs. Inhibition Mean Untreated vs.Treatment OD Control Thrombin Untreated 0.455 — — 1.0 μM Danazol 0.424 6.82 — 1.0 μM Dexamethasone 0.428  5.83 — 10.0 μM PI3 kinase 0.37018.70 — inhibitor LY 294002 1.0 μM Src-1 Inhibitor* 0.349 23.21 — 0.1U/ml Thrombin 1.013 — — 0.1 U/ml Thrombin + 0.859 — 27.57 1.0 μM Danazol0.1 U/ml Thrombin + 0.826 — 33.48 1.0 μM Dexamethasone 0.1 U/mlThrombin + 0.685 — 58.73 10.0 μM PI3 kinase inhibitor LY294002 0.1 U/mlThrombin + 0.534 — 85.85 1.0 μM Src-1 Inhibitor *Obtained from Sigma.

TABLE 12 Percent Inhibition Percent vs. Inhibition Untreated vs.Treatment Mean OD Control Thrombin Untreated 0.102 — — 1.0 μM Danazol0.027 73.89 — 10.0 μM PI3 kinase 0.056 45.32 — inhibitor LY 294002 0.1U/ml Thrombin 0.561 — — 0.1 U/ml Thrombin + 0.373 — 41.02 1.0 μM Danazol0.1 U/ml Thrombin + 0.433 — 27.86 10.0 μM PI3 kinase inhibitor LY294002

Example 15 Animal Model Of Vascular Hyperpermeability

New Zealand white rabbits received 0.215 mg/kg of danazol orally twiceper day for 7 days. The rabbits were then injected once intravitreallywith vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) to produce vascularleakage in the retina. Then, 24 hours later, fluorescein sodium wasinjected, and the fluorescence of the eyes was measured using aFluorotron (Ocumetrics) (five measurements averaged). A single control(placebo) rabbit had 250 fluorescence units in the retina, indicatingvascular leakage there. A single danazol-treated rabbit gave 16fluorescence units, which represents a 94% reduction in vascular leakagecaused by the danazol.

What is claimed:
 1. A method of treating diabetic nephropathy in a humanin need thereof comprising orally administering to the human avascular-hyperpermeability-inhibiting amount of danazol or apharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein thehyperpermeability-inhibiting amount is from 1 mg to 100 mg per day. 2.The method of claim 1 wherein administration of the danazol or apharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is commenced immediately upondiagnosis of the diabetic nephropathy.
 3. The method of claim 1 whereinthe vascular-hyperpermeability-inhibiting amount is from 10 mg to 90 mgof danazol or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof per day.
 4. Themethod of claim 1 wherein the vascular-hyperpermeability-inhibitingamount of danazol or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof isadministered to the human at the appearance of one or more early signsof, or a predisposition to develop, diabetic nephropathy.
 5. The methodof claim 4 wherein administration of danazol or a pharmaceuticallyacceptable salt thereof is commenced upon the appearance ofhyperfiltration.
 6. The method of claim 4 wherein administration ofdanazol or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof is commenced uponthe appearance of microalbuminuria.